k " i 



^\ONS AND ^ s% 

ON THE ^V 



OF TEACHING. 

By B. A. HATHAWAY 

LEBANON, OHIO. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



©Ijap ffloptjrig^ !f a 

Shelf .LB. .UJC5 t 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



IOOI QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON 

U. S. HISTORY. 

(Including the Constitution and Amendments.) 
IOOI QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON 

GEOGRAPHY. 

(Embracing Descriptive, Physical and 
Mathematical Geography.) 

IOOI QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(With copious Illustrations, Parsing 
and Analysis ) 

IOOI QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON 

ARITHMETIC. 

(Including over 200 Test Examples 
with Solutions.) 



Cloth. Price. SO Cents Each 



ADDRESS, 

B. A. HATHAWAY, 

LEBANON, OHIO. 



1001 
Questions and Answers 

ON THE 

Theory and Practice of Teaching. 






BY 



B. A. HATHAWAY, 



Author of "1001 Questions atid Answers on U. S. History," 

"1001 Questions and Ansxvers on Geography" "1001 

Questions and Answers on Grammar" "1001 

Questions and Answers on Arithmetic" 



LEBANON, OHIO: 

Published by the Author 

1886. 




Li|^i7 i 



Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1886, 

By B A. HATHAWAY, 

In the office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington, D. C. 



PREFATORY NOTE. 



The following work is believed to give information on 
a larger number and greater variety of topics relating to the 
Theory and Practice of Teaching than any book on that sub- 
ject yet published in this country. With so great a number of 
questions as are given, the answers are, for the most part, 
necessarily brief, but this, it is thought, will prove an advan- 
tage rather than a disadvantage, especially to Teachers and 
Normal School Students, who desire to review this subject 
hurriedly. 

A large number of authors are quoted, and their names 
will be found appended to answers scattered through the 
volume. This fact will attest the care with rvhich the compiler 
has explored the best treatises on the Theory and Principles of 
Education. 

Many of these quoted answers are from the most distin- 
guished Educationists, and are happy expressions of great atid 
suggestive truths in the Science of Education, zvhich the 
Student will be glad to have presented in the exact language, 
and in connection zvith the names of their authors. Other 
quoted answers give the^ views of men xvhose opinions are 
entitled to respect on disputed points. It has been the aim of 
the author of this work, when the language of another is used, 
to give the proper credit in all cases where the name of the 
writer is known. 

This is the fifth book of the series. Others will be out in 
the near future. 

B. A. H. 
July, 1886. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 

Introductory, --------- 5 

Theory of Education, ------- 8 

Art of Instruction, - - - 19 

Discipline and Government, - 36 

School Economy, -------- 46 

History of Education, ------- 57 

Teaching Reading, 67 

Teaching Spelling, ------- 71 

Teaching Arithmetic, ------- 77 

Teaching Grammar, .----.. 83 

Teaching Geography, ------- 88 

Teaching Penmanship, ------ ^ 

Teaching Composition, ------- ^7 

Teaching Higher Branches: 

History, - 100 

Physiology, - - - - - - - - 104 

Book-keeping, - - - - - - - 106 

Higher Mathematics, 107 

Natural Sciences, 109 



INTRODUCTORY. 



What is included in the Theory and Practice of Teaching? 
The theory and principles of education, the science and art 
of instruction and school management. 

What are some of the titles of -works -which treat of this sub- 
ject? 

"The Theory and Practice of Teaching," "Education as a 
Science," "School Management," "Normal Methods," 
"School Economy," "The Science and Art of Teaching," 
"Pedagogics as a System," etc. 

What is the etymology of the word " Teach"? 

It came from an Anglo-Saxon word meaning "to show," and 
it is remarkable that both the Greek and Latin verbs mean- 
ing "to teach" come from a Sanskrit root, also meaning 
"to show." 

What important thought is suggested by this etymology? 

The true teacher is to show, lead or guide the pupil in the 
work of education, not to do that work for the pupil. 

Ho-w may Teaching be defined? 

Teaching is guiding a pupil in those exercises which, per- 
formed by himself, will best develop his powers. 

What is meant by '"''theory' 1 '' in the expression, Theory and 
Practice of Teaching? 

The word theory is often used to denote mere speculation, and 
is thus opposed to practice, but here it means the body of 
principles embracing the science and art of teaching. 

In what does the Art of Teaching consist? 

In the skillful application of rules and methods deduced from 
the theory of teaching, and from observation and experience. 



IN TRODUCTOR T. 



What was PestalozzVs maxim concerning the three-fold na- 
ture of education ? 

"Education has to deal with the heart, the head and the hand." 
To be complete, therefore, it must be moral, intellectual 
and manual. 

What is meant by the u New Education 1 ''? 

It cannot be accurately defined in a few words. It embraces 
the results of the best thought of modern educators. It 
means new methods rather than new studies. It aims to 
find nature's method; it would teach things before names; 
it would direct and not repress the child's natural activity, 
and it recognizes the importance of doing in learning. 

Name some of the subjects of a course of study for the 
professional training of teachers. 

The Science of the Mind applied to teaching, Methods of 
Instruction, History and Philosophy of Education, the 
True Order of Studies, School Discipline, School Hy- 
giene, and a thorough review and drill in all the rudiment- 
ary branches. 

Name some standard works on the Science and Art of 
Education. 

Joseph Payne's "Lectures on the Science and Art of Edu- 
cation," Alexander Bain's "Education as a Science," A. 
R. Craig's "The Philosophy of Training," D. P. Page's 
"Theory and Practice of Teaching," Herbert Spencer's 
"Education; Mental, Moral and Physical," etc. 

Name some eminent educationists of different nations. 

Horace Mann (American), Joseph Payne (English), Joseph 
Jacotot (French), Pestalozzi (Swiss), Diesterweg (Ger- 
man). 

For what purpose should a teacher study the methods of 
educators? 

With a view of obtaining hints and helps rather than of 
following them implicitly. Every good teacher's methods 
must be his own, but he should constantly aim to im- 
prove upon them. 

What is meant bv a method in education f 

It means more than a mere way or plan, — an orderly, regu- 
lar course, a systematic process aiming at definite ends, 
and controlled by fixed principles. 



INTRODUCTORY 



15. What should the course of study in the common school 

embrace? 
First of all, such branches as the common people in every- 
day business need. 

16. State some of the necessary requirements in a successful 

teacher. 
Executive power, will power, a thorough knowledge of the 
branches taught, and the faculty of imparting instruction 
— aiding in developing the intellectual susceptibility of 
the child or pupil. 

17. What kinds of knozvledge should a successful teacher have? 
He should not only thoroughly understand the subjects to 

be taught, but he should also have a broad and compre- 
hensive knowledge of the general objects of education, 
and the means by which these are to be accomplished. 
That is, proper professional preparation includes a thor- 
ough study of the branches to be taught, the faculties of 
the mind to be developed, and methods of teaching. 

18. Why should the teacher thoroughly review every topic 

before teaching it? 
The teacher's knowledge of the subject he teaches must be 
systematic, fresh, ready at hand. In the presence of his 
class, he has no opportunity to recall the half-forgotten 
results of past study. Every power and energy of his 
mind are required to search through the minds of his pu- 
pils, and to test the results of their study. 

19. Fro?n what various sources may the teacher obtain infor- 

mation and hints on Theory and Practice? 
The various treatises on the subject, and manuals of instruc- 
tion, the suggestion to teachers in the elementary text- 
books, the circulars of information issued by the National 
Bureau of Education, the school reports of State and city 
superintendents of instruction, the proceedings of teach- 
ers' institutes and associations, and visits to well-man- 
aged schools. 

20. Name some kinds of Literature which the teacher should 

read, 
(1) The news of the day. (2) General literature. (3) Pro- 
fessional literature as found in school journals; biographies 
of eminent educators and their writings on education. 
(4) School reports and statistics, which can be obtained for 



THEORY OF EDUCATION. 



the asking. (5) Reports of penal, reformatory and benev- 
olent public institutions. 

What are some of the benefits of teaching school to the teacher'? 

"I advise every young person to keep school. I acquired 
more knowledge of human nature while I kept school than 
while I was at the bar, than while in the world of politics, 
or at the courts of Europe. It is the best method of ac- 
quiring patience, self-command, and a knowledge of char- 
acter." — President John Adam* 



Theory of Education. 



1. Give a definition of Education. 

"Education, as a whole, consists of development and training, 
and may, therefore, be denned as the cultivation of all the 
native powers of the child, by exercising them in accord- 
ance with the laws of his being, with a view to development 
and training." — Prof. Joseph Payne. 

2. What is the etymology of Education f 

It comes from the Latin verb educo, educare, to lead forth. 

3. What are some other meanings of the Latin verb educo > 
To foster; to maintain; to feed; to cherish; to teach. 

4. In its largest sense, what may Education comprehend'? 
Every preparation that is made in our youth for the sequel 

of our lives. 

5. What is the fundamental idea in Education? 
Development with trainng, growth with culture. 

6. What is the great object of Education? 

Not so much the acquisition of knowledge as the develop- 
ment of power. 

7. What is the best Education f 

That which best prepares for life rather than that which 
makes the best scholars. The education which makes the 
best scholars may, however, best prepare for life. 

8. What did Locke call the chief business of Education'? 
"The business of education is not to perfect a learner in all or 

any of the sciences, but to give his mind that freedom, that 



THBORT OF EDUCATION. 



disposition and those habits that may enable him to obtain 
any part of knowledge he may apply himself to, or stand 
in need of in the future course of his life." — John Locke. 

9. What can be said of interest and delight in learning? 

"Experience is daily showing with greater clearness that 
there is always a method to be found productive of 
interest — even of delight; and it ever turns out that 
this is the method proved by all other tests to be the 
right one." — Herbert Spencer. 

10. What studies are best for schools? 

Those which both develop power and teach truths useful 
in practical life. 

11. Why is Education difficult to define f 

Because of its comprehensiveness; the more comprehensive 
the thought the more difficult the definition. 

12. In the definition of Education, the development of mans 

powers, zvhat limitation on powers do some writers make? 
They define education as the development of man's rational 
powers, maintaining that brutal or evil powers should not 
be developed. 

13. What is the true educational spirit? 

That of inquiry and investigation, not of dogmatism and 
intolerance of difference of opinion. 

14. What is the test of the correctness of a theory of education? 
That it is found correct when practically applied. 

15. Which is the older, the Art or the Science of Education? 
The art 

16. Why is Education older as an Art than as a Science? 
Because men had learned many important truths concern- 
ing the art of teaching by experience, without knowing 
the philosophy on which the truths were based. 

17. Is there a Science of Education? 

There is, and upon it the deepest minds have thought, and 
the best writers have written. 

18. Give two reasons why the teacher should study the Science 

of Education. 
Because he should understand the science on which his own 
profession is based, and because it is a beautiful and inter- 
esting study, as instructive as any other. 



THEORY OF EDUCATION. 



19. What is Science? 

It is knowledge reduced to principles, classified and sys- 
temized. 

20. What is said by those who maintain that there is no Science 

of Education ? 
That our knowledge on education is subject to perpetual 
change, and that rules of teaching are not of universal ap- 
plication, each pupil requiring a different method of 
instruction. 

21. What can be said in answer to this objection? 

That enough of important and general principles underlying 
education have been established to constitute a science. 

22. Is it true that a different method of Education should be 

sought for every individual mind? 
No; while individual minds differ, yet their leading charac- 
teristics are the same, and there are certain general laws 
of mental development which apply to all. 

23. Can methods of instruction be reduced to science? 
Yes. 

24. Why should those who do not intend to become teachers 

study the Science of Education? 
Because it is of use to all who share in the responsibilities 
of the family, and because of its dignity and importance 
to every thoughtful mind. 

25. Which is better, School Education, or Private Tutorage 

with one pupil to one teacher? 
School education. 

26. Why is School Instruction superior to Private Tutorage? 
Good education trains character, and character is developed 

best in contact with others. It is important that the child 
should early associate and compete with those of its own age. 

27. Name some things a child learns by associating with his 

equals. 
To defend his own rights, and to respect the rights of others. 

28. In rvhat sense is all Education self-education ? 
Education essentially consists in the action and exercise of 

the learner's faculties, which are performed by himself 
alone. "It is what he does for himself, not what is 
done for him, that educates him." 



THEORT OF EDUCATION. 



29. What is the part of the teacher in the work of Education? 

To stimulate and direct the learner, not to do for him 
the work which educates. 

30. How does the development of the infanfs mind begin? 
By impressions received through the sensory organs. 

31. What are the impressions received through the senses called? 
Sensations. 

32. What are the channels of communication betzveen Material 

Objects and the Inherent Capabilities of the child? 
The senses. 
^. How does all knowledge begin? 
In sensations. 

34. In what way is Sensation connected with Mental Operation? 
Only by furnishing the material upon which the first 

mental operations are performed. 

35. What is the distinction betzveen Sensation and Perception ? 
Sensation is the effect produced on the bodily organ by the 

external object; perception is the act of the mind in 
becoming cognizant of the sensation as proceeding from 
some cause external to itself. 

36. What are Conceptions? 

They are perceptions registered or pictured in the mind 
so as to be recalled. 

37. How is the development of the mind carried on? 

It begins with the reception of sensations, and is carried on 
by retaining and grouping these sensations and the forma- 
tion of conceptions or ideas. 

3S. What is the order of the development of the child' 1 s pozuers? 
Sensation and perception before conception; conception 
and imagination before reasoning. 

39. What does this indicate as to the order of studies? 

That the child's perceptive faculties should first be educated, 
and a powerful, logical drill, like many exercises in mental 
arithmetic, is out of place in classes of very young pupils. 

40. The impressions of which sense are most vivid a?id durable? 
Sight. 



THEORY OF EDUCATION. 



41. Which sense ranks second in the vividness and permanence 

of its impressions? 
Hearing. 

42. What is the effect of study on the brain? 

The brain, like other organs, is exhausted by continued activ- 
ity, and needs rest to recuperate its vitality. 

43. What is meant by Brain Exhaustion? 

The tissues of the brain are worn away by work, and be- 
come dead matter, which must be cast off, and replaced by 
new material. 

44. What is the process of brain recuperation? 

During sleep or play the blood is adding new material to 
the brain, and carrying off into the currents of circulation 
the worn out and cast-off tissues. 

45. What class of ideas tax the mind least, and -what most? 
Concrete ideas least; the more abstract the ideas become, the 

more difficult their comprehension, and the greater the 
nervous strain in their study. 

46. How do common school studies rank in the strain and ex- 

haustion of the brain? 
For most pupils mathematics requires the strongest grasp 
of mind and the greatest strain on the brain; next are 
grammatical analysis and parsing; last are the studies in 
which memory is chiefly exercised, history, geography 
and spelling. 

47. What is the effect of study on the circulation of the blood in 

the brain? 
Its circulation is full and active, and even the face is flushed. 

48. What is the effect of long-continued brain activity? 

The brain becomes so engorged with blood that its activity 
is depressed, and its energies flag. 
^9. What is the great lazv of activity and rest for the develop- 
ment of the mind? 
A period of repose must always succeed one of activity; 
study brings weariness, and rest is as essential to healthy 
growth as exercise. 
50. What effect has age on the exhaustion of the brain through 
study? 

The younger a pupil is, the sooner his mind grows tired. 
For young children, lessons should not exceed ten minutes, 



THE OR T OF EDUCATION. 



51. What are some of the requisites of a good teacher? 

A knowledge of the studies to be taught, a knowledge of 
the methods of teaching based on a fair idea of the laws 
of mental development, an aptitude in the work of in- 
struction, and tact in the discipline and management 
of the school. 

52. Why should the Teacher be a Student? 

So that he may sympathize with the pupil in his struggle 
after knowledge, and keep his own mind receptive of 
truth. 

53. What is the great distinction betrveen the trained and 

untrained mind with reference to the poxver of atten- 
tion ? 
The trained intellect has the power of voluntarily fixing 
the mind upon a given subject for a continuous period in 
a far greater degree than the untrained mind. 

54. What should be one of the first efforts of the teacher in the 

cultivation of attention? 
To develop in the pupil the power of giving up the whole 
powers of the mind to one thing, but with young chil- 
dren not for a long period of time. 

55. What is the great law of retentiveness of knoxvledge in 

the mind? 
The more clearly any fact or truth is comprehended, and the 
more deeply it interests the mind, the longer it will be 
retained; memory depends largely on attention. 

56. What are some of the means of imprinting knowledge per 

manently on the memory? 
The first impression should be striking and lively; the 
whole attention should be concentrated; there should be 
frequent repetition. 

57. How does Payne describe the art of remembering? 
"Memory is the result of attention. The art of memory is 

the art of paying attention." 

58. Is Memory a distinct facility of the mind? 

No; it is an assemblage of different kinds of memories that 
we possess, one differing in power from another. 

59. How can the teacher encourage self -development in the 

pupil? 
Inciting his mind to self-activity by his interest in the new, 
the wonderful and the beautiful. 



1 4 THE OR 2' OF EDUCATION. 

60. What does Sir William Hamilton denominate the primary 

principle in education? 
"The determination of the pupil to self- activity — the doing 
of nothing for him he is able to do for himself." 

61. Hotv should the teacher regard Curiosity? 

As the appetite for knowledge. " Stimulate, not satisfy, 
curiosity." 

62. What should precede every explanation by the teacher? 
The curiosity of the pupil, or the desire to know. 

63. What stimulus has nature furnished every learner to de- 

velop his oivn faculties? 
"Nature has made the healthful exercise of our faculties both 
of mind and body pleasurable." — Herbert Spencer. 

64. What should be the chief stimulus in Intellectual Education ? 
"The pleasure felt by the learner in the simple exercise of 

his own powers, the pleasure of developing and growing 
by means of acts of observing, experimenting, discover- 
ing, inventing, performed by himself." — Payne. 

65. Give some proper incentives to study. 

A desire to know; the pleasure of learning; a desire to be 
useful and intelligent; and a desire to please teacher, 
parents and friends. 

66. Why should the teacher make it his daily duty to thoroughly 

prepare every lesson? 
To find out the surest, shortest and most attractive way of 
making his instruction reach the minds and hearts of his 
pupils. 

67. What is the Inductive Method? 

It is a method based on the process of deriving general prin- 
ciples from individual facts; it proceeds from particulars 
to generals. 

68. Hozv are rules, definitions and principles taught by the 

Inductive Method? 
A sufficient number of facts are first taught to enable the 
pupil to discover the principle, rule or definition for himself. 

69. What is an Induction? 

A conclusion drawn from a number of particular facts. 

70. What other name is there for the Inductive Method? 
Developing method. 



THE OR T OF EDUCATION. 15 



71. How can the Multiplication Table be taught experi- 

mentally ■? 

By teaching that seven 7's added together make 49, and that 
7 taken seven times from 49 leaves no remainder; etc. 
Pupils may be taught to make a multiplication table. 

72. In the Developing Method which come first, examples or 

rules? 

Examples; and the rules are to be discovered by the pupil, 
and then expressed in his own language. 

73. What is Empirical knozvledge? 

Knowledge derived only from experience, without an ac- 
quaintance with the theory or principles underlying the 
facts. 

74. To -whom -was the xvord Empirics first applied? 

To physicians who practiced from experience only, without 
science or theory. 

75. Why -will not a high-pressure system of instruction give the 

pupil a good education in one or tzvo years? 
It will where the learner has some knowledge of the 
branches beforehand, but where the branches are entirely 
new, the average growth of the young mind is not rapid 
enough to grapple all the truths in so short a time. 

76. What are the objects of Reviews? 

To test results of study; to fix in the mind important facts. 

77. How often should thorough examinations be made? 

Once in three months; partial reviews, however, should be 
made frequent. 

78. Why should not thorough written examinations be frequent? 
They take up too much time, and are too severe a trial on 

both teacher and pupil. 

79. What are the benefits of good instruction in vocal music in 

common schools? 

Vocal culture, the training of the emotional nature, the cul- 
tivation of the sense of the beautiful, and it is a help in 
discipline. 

80. Which of the common school studies best trains attention? 
Arithmetic. 



16 THEORY OF EDUCATION. 

81. What powers of the mind are especially called into exercise 

by Arithmetic? 
Attention, the power of forming clear and exact ideas, and 
reasoning. 

82. What mental faculties are chiefly exercised in Geography? 
Perception, Conception, Imagination and Memory. 

83. What powers are especially cultivated in Grammar? 
Close and logical thinking. 

84. In %vhat way may Geography exercise the Conceptive 

Faculty? 
The mind should be trained to recall images of mountains, 
lakes, rivers, etc. 

85. In what way may Geography cultivate Imagination? 
The pupil should be able to form mental pictures of regions 

far different from that in which he lives. 

86. Give William T. Harris's classification of the subjects of 

elementary instruction . 

I. Reading and writing — the mastery of letters. 
II. Arithmetic — the mastery of numbers. 
III. Geography — the mastery over place. 
^ IV. Grammar — the mastery over the word. 
V. History — the mastery over time. 

87. What is Object Teaching? 

It is instruction by objects for the systematic cultivation of 
the observing powers. 

88. What are the purposes of Object Teaching? 

The cultivation of the senses; training the powers of per- 
ception so that the mind may be stored with clear and 
distinct ideas; language lessons in which words are appro- 
priately and correctly associated with ideas. 

89. What is Psychology? 

The science of the mind; mental philosophy. 

90. What are the divisions of the Intellect? 

The intellect embraces several distinct faculties — perception, 
memory, imagination, understanding and intuition, or the 
reason. The understanding has its forms of abstraction, 
conception, judgment and reasoning. 

91. What is meant by a Mental Faculty? 
A power of the mind. 



THE OR T OF EDUCATION. 17 

92. Name an intellectual faculty which is early developed, and 

a 7n on g the first to decay. 

Perception, which is keen in the child, and dull in the 
aged man. 

93. What three great divisions of the potvers of the mind? 
The Intellectual Faculties, the Affections and the Will. 

94. Name 07ie of the intellectual faculties which is among the 

last developed. 
Reasoning. 

95. What great principle C07icer?ii?ig growth a7id progress in 

educatio7i did Felle7iberg a7i7ioii7ice? 
"Gradual progress is the only sure progress." 

96. Explai7i this principle. 

Education is a growth; successive steps in education should 
only be taken as the mind is prepared for them, and the 
young mind should not be filled with facts, rules or prin- 
ciples without allowing sufficient time for them to be 
arranged, compared with previous acquisitions, and fully 
assimilated. This, of course, has no reference to reviews, 
which cannot be too highly recommended. 

97. What is "cramming?" 

It is a kind of mental stuffing, a pouring into the mind a 
mass of new facts, rules and definitions never before 
learned. 

98. What distinctio7i ca7i you 77iake betwee7i l7istructio7i a7id 

Trai7ii7igt 
A pupil is instructed when knowledge is communicated to 
him which he comprehends; he is trained when he is 
taught to do something, and do it well, and with facility. 

99. Give a7i illustratio7i of this disti7ictio7i. 

Pupils are instructed in the mariner's measure; seamen are 
trained in it to measure distances at sea with facility and 
accuracy. 

100. What co7i7iectio7i should there be betxveen Trai7ii7ig a7id 

l7istruction ? 
They should go together in education. 

101. What is Culture? 

A term denoting the development and improvement ot 
human character by means of education, training, and 
especially by the refining influences of literature and art. 

2 



i8 THE OR T OF EDUCATION. 

102. Give the active and the passive sense of the word culture. 
In the active sense it implies the use of all necessary means 

and agencies to cultivate the higher faculties of man; in 
the passive sense it implies the result of their operation. 

103. What distinction between Education and Culture? 
Education means development; culture means both devel- 
opment and refinement. School education ought to 
result in culture, but unfortunately it does not always 
do so. 

104. What is the effect of culture upon the mental powers? 
They are not only developed and strengthened, but there is 

superadded a nice and careful discrimination as to their 
proper or improper exercise, with a due regard to the 
circumstances which require their employment. 

105. What is characteristic of a man of culture in the use of 

language? 
A man of culture expresses his thoughts in suitable and 
elegant language. But this is not all; he knows how to 
adapt his language to the persons, the places and the cir- 
cumstances which call for this expression; nor does he 
give utterance to his thoughts except when it is proper 
to do so. 

106. What two kinds of power does culture imply? 

Power of exercise, and power of restraint. Culture does 
not imply weakness, bvit it is opposed to savage wildness. 

107. What is the distinction betxveen general and special culture? 
General culture implies that everything constituting the 

character of the individual has been brought under a 
high degree of improvement; special culture has refer- 
ence to a particular direction given to the development 
of the faculties, as the culture of the poet, the teacher, 
the clergyman, etc. 

108. Is the object of higher education general or special cul- 

ture? 
General culture, as a basis for that special or technical cul- 
ture which is needed in a particular vocation. 

109. What is the best means of promoting a wide general cul- 

ture? 
Good literature. Every good book that a pupil or teacher 
reads and learns to love is a moral and educational force, 
and a means of culture. 



THE ART OF INSTRUCTION. 



What is meant by Secondary Instruction? 

Instruction above that of the common school, such as is af- 
forded by high schools, academies, etc. 

What is meant by Superior Instruction? 

A term used to denote instruction of the highest grade, or 
that given in colleges and universities. 

What is Herbert Spencer's declaration concer7iing Rule- 
.Teaching? 

" Along with rote-teaching is declining also the nearly- 
allied teaching by rules. The particulars first, and then 
the generalization, is the new method." — Herbert Spen- 
cer. 

Give a test of the excellence of a method of instruction. 

"As a final test by which to judge any plan of culture, 
should come the question — Does it create a pleasurable 
excitement in the pupils ?" — lb. 



The Art of Instruction. 



i. What is Pedagogy or Pedagogics? 

The science and art of giving instruction, particularly in 
school. 

2. What is the etymology of these terms? 

They come from two Greek words signifying to lead the boys. 

3. Where has the term Pedagogics been most used? 

In Germany more than England or the United States. 

4. Which is the more extensive term, Education or Instruction? 
Education. 

5. What is the distinction between Education and Instruction? 
Instruction is dhected to the intellect or understanding, 

while education comprehends the guidance and develop- 
ment of the whole human being. 

6. What are the general divisions of education with reference 

to the class of faculties to be developed? 
(1) Physical, (2) Intellectual, (3) Moral, (4) Esthetic, (5) 
Religious. 



THE ART OP INSTRUCTION. 



7. What is Physical Education? 
The education of the bodily powers. 

8. What is Intellectual Education? 
That of the mind or intellect. 

9. What is Moral Education? 

That of the propensities, sentiments, will and conscience. 

10. What is Religious Education? 

That of the religious sentiments or spiritual instincts. 

11. What is Esthetic Education? 

That of the taste, musical, artistic or literary, comprehend- 
ing the sphere of the imagination. 

12. What can the common-school teacher do to educate the taste 

of children? 
He can exercise care in maintaining a neat and orderly 
arrangement of the school-house, furniture and grounds, 
and lead his pupils to see the beauties of poetic and 
literary selections. 

13. What is the distinction between an Educator a?id an 

Educationist? 
An educator is one engaged in the practical work of education ; 
an educationist is one acquainted with the theory and prin- 
ciples of education, whether a practical instructor or not. 

14. What is the difference betxveen Instructing and Telling? 
True instruction is educative, arrests the attention, awakens 

the interest, and imprints truths and principles on the 
mind; mere lecturing or telling generally fails of this. 

15. What is one of the most common faults of young instructors? 
That of talking too much, and telling too many things. 

16. What kind of instruction imprints truths and principles 

most firmly in the mind of the pupil? 
That which leads him to discover them for himself. 

17. Explain the maxim, "The primary principle of education is 

self -activity.'''' 
It means the pupil's motives to action should come from 
within rather than from without; a love of knowledge and 
study should be developed; self-reliance should be cul- 



tivated. 



THE ART OF INSTRUCTION. 



18. What is training in education? 

It is that part of education which imparts skill or facility 
by exercise or practice. 

19. What is the great law of the formation of habits? 
They are formed by repetition or exercise. 

20. What allowance should the teacher make for bad habits of 

pupils? 

He should remember that bad habits have been slowly 
formed, and cannot be uprooted at once, and by violence. 

21. What difference is there between the educated and the uned- 

ucated with reference to control over mental habits? 
Education brings the power of freeing ourselves from one 
habit, and adopting another. 

22. What is drill in education? 

It is a routine of exercises required for the ready per- 
formance of certain processes, or for impressing on the 
memory associations of facts and words. 

23. What is Rote- Teaching? 

Instruction by means of constant repetition, particularly of 
certain forms of speech, with little regard to their meaning. 

24. What distinction in the common use of the terms, Drill and 

Rote- Teaching? 
The latter is generally used in a bad sense; the former is not. 

25. Why is Rote- Teaching condemned? 

Because it fails to address the understanding, and is merely 
mechanical. 

26. Is all Rote-Teaching to be condemned? 

No; it is sometimes useful to impress on the memory rudi- 
mentary principles which cannot well be learned in 
any other way. 

27. What is most commonly taught by rote? 

The multiplication table and other arithmetical tables, 
grammatical declensions, conjugations, etc. 

28. What is Concert- Teaching? 

It is instruction by memorizing what is to be learned by 
simultaneous repetition. 



THE ART OF INSTRUCTION. 



29. Do Educationists approve of Concert- Teaching? 

It is a kind of rote-teaching, and is regarded as objection- 
able for many reasons. It may, however, often be used 
to great advantage, especially with young pupils. 

30. What are the three principal methods of instruction ? 
) The qu 
recitation. 

31. What special care should be observed in putting questions'!' 
(1) Never ask leading questions; (2) put the question to the 

class before calling for an answer from an individual, so 
as to gain the attention of all; (3) do not ask several 
questions to get a single answer. 

32. What advantages have 7vritte?i answers over oral? 

They bring the pupil under rigid examination in penman- 
ship, orthography, use of capitals, punctuation and modes 
of expression. Written exercises should be frequent. 

33. What are Leading Questions? 

Those which suggest the answers, and are generally, but 
not always, answered by yes or no. 

34. Is lecturing ever a proper method of instruction in the 

common school!' 
Lecturing has its uses and abuses; oral lessons or conversa- 
tional lectures which impart instruction and give variety 
have their proper place, but they should never be substi- 
tuted for regular recitations. 

35. What was the Socratic method of instruction! 1 

That employed by Socrates to bring conviction to the learn- 
er's mind by obtaining, in answer to the questions asked, 
a series of admissions leading finally to his assent to the 
truth proposed. 

36. Can the teacher properly employ this method? 
Rarely in the school room. 

37. What is the Topical Method of reciting? 

It requires the pupil to give a connected statement of his 
knowledge of the topic assigned him. 

38. What is one of the chief advantages of this method? 
It cultivates the power of expression. 

39. What are some of the most important objects of recitation? 
Examination, explanation, drill, correct expression. 



THE ART OF INSTRUCTION. 23 

What should be the length of recitations? 

They should not be protracted beyond the power of the pu- 
pils to give close and voluntary attention to the subject. 
Very young children have not the capacity of attention 
longer than a few minutes. Five-minute recitations for 
the youngest children, with the time increasing with the 
age to thirty minutes, are better than longer periods 
attended with want of animation and weariness. 

What should be the positio?i of the class during recitation? 
The class should usually be seated, and the pupil reciting 
should stand. 

Why should the pupil stand zvhile reciting? 

That he may be brought out prominently, and acquire the 

habit of thinking and speaking in that exposed position. 

and thus acquire confidence and self-control. 

Should the pupil recite in his own language, or in the 
words of the text-book? 

Generally in his own language. 

What reasons are there for the pupil reciting in his own 
language? 

It affords evidence that he understands the subject, and has 
not merely memorized the words of the author, it makes 
the pupil's mind a store- house of thoughts instead of mere 
words, and cultivates his own power of expression. 

Should any portion of the lesson be given in the language 
of the text-book? 

"Captions, definitions, tables and fixed rules should be accu- 
rately recited in the words of the author, but every other 
kind of lesson should be expressed in the pupil's own 
language." — Orcutt. 

What difference of opinion is there on the matter of recit- 
ing in the language of the book? 

Many good teachers hold that even rules ana definitions 
should not be committed to memory, or at least that the 
pupil should not be required to commit them. Others 
hold that the exact language of the author is important. 

Why should primary instruction be more largely oral than 
higher instruction? 

The reason is plain that very young pupils cannot investi- 
gate books like older pupils, and the teacher must not 



24 THE ART OF INSTRUCTION. 

only give more instruction (information), but must explain 
the books to his pupils. The teacher should make his 
pupils do the talking as far as possible. 

48. Hozv may the Art of Teaching be defined? 

Teaching is the art of so presenting objects ana subjects to 
the mind of the learner as to arouse that activity which 
results in knowledge, discipline and culture. 

49. What is the effect of a multiplicity of facts or details 

presented at one recitation? 

It distracts the attention and confuses the memory. 

50. What useful maxim in opposition to this error? 
"One thing at a time." 

51. Hozv may this maxim be aoused? 

In applying it to mean that pupils should finish one study 
before beginning another, or that all the alphabet should 
be taught before reading, and reading before writing, etc. 

52. Give some illustrations of the maxim u one thing at a time" 
One difficulty at a time is enough for the child. One illus- 
tration is often better than many. One truth fixed in 
the mind at a single recitation may be remembered, when 
two or more would be foi-gotten. The first map for the 
child should contain but a bare outline. 

53. What effect has doing on learning? 

Children learn to do many things only by doing them — to 
walk by walking, to talk by talking, to swim by swimming, 
and they should learn to write English by writing, and to 
know the meaning of words by using them. 

54. What is the relation of doing to clearness and precision of 

knowledge? 
Skill comes only from doing, and must go before real and 
full knowledge. 

55. Name some of the objects of class-room illustrations. 

To render the obscure plain, to awaken interest, to give en- 
tertainment, relieve monotony, and to fix in the memory. 

56. Name a characteristic of a good illustration. 

It throws light on the topic in hand, and does not draw 
attention to itself. 



THE ART OF INSTRUCTION. 25 

57. Why are frequent reviews necessary to ready and accurate 

knoxvledge of the subjects taught? 

Because many things, when studied but once, are not firmly 
fixed in the mind, and repetition will make many points 
clearer, and form a more lasting impression on the mind. 

58. What are the purposes of regular examinations? 

To determine the pupil's fitness to be advanced to a higher 
grade, or to pursue advanced studies. 

59. State the difference bet-ween teaching a rule inductively 

and deductively. 
By the inductive method we solve each case by analysis, 
and derive the rules by inference or induction. By the 
deductive method we first establish a few general prin- 
ciples, and then derive rules of operation from these prin- 
ciples. 

60. Name three methods of calling on pupils in the class to recite. 
(1) Consecutively. (2) Promiscuously. (3) Simultaneously 

or in concert. 

61. Name the advantages of the Consecutive Method. 

It is rapid, no time being lost in designating the pupil to 
recite; it is easy for the teacher; it gives all the pupils an 
opportunity to recite. 

62. Name the disadvantages of this method. 

It fails to necessitate the close attention of the whole class; 
it often permits a partial preparation of the lesson; it is 
not the most thorough testing of the whole class. 

63. Name the advantages of the Promiscuous Method of 

reciting. 
It secures the attention of the whole class; it necessitates 
the preparation of the whole lesson by the entire class; 
the recitation is made a mental drill for the entire class. 

64. Name the disadvantages of this method. 

It is less rapid and less easy for the teacher than the con- 
secutive method; some pupils may be omitted in recitation. 

65. How may the advantages of both methods be in part 

secured? 
If either method is used, by making frequent resorts to the 
other. 



26 THE ART OF INSTRUCTION. 

66. What is to be said of the Coticert Method of recitation f 

It is not reliable as a test, but may sometimes be used 
with good results. 

67. Name some things which should be required i?i class work. 
"Require and secure good conduct in class-room; quiet and 

orderly movements in passing to and from class-room; 
erect position of pupils; promptness and accuracy; neat- 
ness of blackboard work." — Prof. J. A. Cooper. 

68. Name some useful directions to teachers for securing 

good recitations. 
" Make a careful preparation for each lesson, including both 
matter and method of recitation; stand before the class; 
request rather than command. Ask definite questions and 
give positive directions; show pupils how to study and how 
to recite. Be energetic, thorough, firm, exact, clear and 
efficient; strive to secure thorough study, clear recitation, 
a lively interest, close attention and rapid progress. Use 
visible illustrations and illustrative objects as much as you 
can with profit; keep the recitation-room in order." — lb. 

69. Name some things to be guarded against by the teacher 

in hearing recitations. 
"Guard against much talking, dependence on the text-book, 
scolding, and fault-finding." — lb. 

70. Should the questions printed in the text-book be used in 

school? 
The pupil may use these questions and find their answers; 
the teacher should be well enough acquainted with the 
subject to frame questions of his own. 

71. What evils result from a slavish use of text-books by the 

teacher? 
It gives the impression that the book is taught rather than 
the subject, and fails to stimulate the spirit of inquiry and 
free investigation. 

72. What advantages result from a proper use of text-books? 
They aid the teacher and pupil, and accustom the pupil to 

the use of the printed page. 

73. What is meant by Oral Instruction? 
It is instruction without text-books. 

74. What are the purposes of Oral Instruction? 

To awaken attention, to strengthen the observation of 



THE ART OF INSTRUCTION. 27 

things, to give useful information, and to accustom the 
child to express in his own language what he has learned 
and retained. 

75. What subjects are usually taught to young children by oral 

lessons? 
Music, English Grammar, the simpler elements of Natural 
Science, Natural History, and Natural Philosophy. 

76. What good effect results from committing to memory and 

repeating selections from good authors? 
It improves the mind, the taste and the sensibilities, and 
may aid in the formation of an animated style of reading. 

77. Should pupils be encouraged to memorize the best para- 

graphs in literature, even if they are not understood? 
No; only that which is understood should be committed 
to memory. 

78. What kind of selections are best for the younger children 

to memorize? 
" Such as are calculated to develop their emotional natures — 
the imagination, love of home and parents, kindness to 
dumb animals, etc. — and to teach them correct rules of 
action." — y. B. Peaslee. 

79. What kind for more advanced pupils? 

" Brief extracts, containing grand and ennobling thoughts' 
calculated to incite to higher aspirations in life, to lead 
them into pure fields of English literature, and to teach 
them to love and reverence our great authors." — lb. 

80. How muck time should be devoted to this work? 
At least one hour per week. — lb. 

81. How much ?nay be regarded as a fair amount of work 

of this kind? 
Eight lines for each week's work. — lb. 

82. Why should the extracts be memorized verbatim? 
Because their value in after life will depend much upon the 

accuracy with which they can be repeated. 
S3. Hoxv should the author's name be associated with each 
selection ? 
The full name of the author (when known) should be given 
at the close of each reading or recitation. 



28 THE ART OF INSTRUCTION. 

84. How may exercises in memorizing selections be conducted? 
All the selections should be recited in concert by the class, 

and afterwards individually. 

85. Why has poetry the preference in these selections? 

" It inculcates a double beauty — beauty as thought and 
beauty as composition. It is more easily committed, and, 
as a rule, longer retained." — Peaslee. 

86. What may be said of the rhythm of poetry? 

" I believe that even the rhythm and diction of good poetry 
are capable of exercising some formative effect, even 
though the sense be imperfectly understood; but, of course, 
the good of poetry is not easily got unless the sense of 
the words is known." — Matthew Arnold. 

87. What interest do children take in memory gems? 

" I have never known anything in school work that inter- 
ested children more than this." — Peaslee. 

88. Should the teacher use a text-book in recitation? 

As little as possible; in some studies it is best not to use a 
book at all during recitation. 

89. Why should not the teacher adhere closely to the text-book 

in recitation? 
It hampers the teacher in proportion to his dependence on it. 

90. Should the teacher make known to pupils the different views 

of authors -when they differ? 
The fact that there is a difference of opinion may well be 
known, and, where it can be done without confusing the 
mind of the learner, the views of different writers should 
be taught. 

91. What advantages result to advanced pupils from the use of 

two or more text-books? 
It excites the spirit of research, and breaks up the habit of 
reiving implicitly on everything the book says. 

92. What is the effect of too much explanation by the teacher? 
Want of self-reliance and a failure to develop the powers 

of thought and investigation. 

93. What is the effect of too little explanation? 

Mechanical recitations; passing over that which is not 
understood, resulting in a want of interest. 



THE ART OF INSTRUCTION. ig 



94. What is a good rule on this subject} 

Never tell a pupil what he can find out for himself. 

95. What is Dogmatic Teaching? 

It is teaching by positive assertion, or by authority without 
appealing to the reason or understanding. 

96. Is dogmatism used in a good or bad sense in education? 
In a bad sense. 

97. Is teaching by authority always to be condemned? 

No. " Unreasoning, blind faith is necessary in beginning 
any art or science." — Alex. Bain. 

9S. State some of the arguments in favor of the study of 
the elements of Natural Sciejice in common schools. 
It cultivates the observing faculties; it can be made highly 
interesting; the knowledge obtained may be highly useful. 

99. State some arguments on the other side. 

The danger of overcrowding the pupil with studies; the 
want of preparation on the part of teachers for this kind 
of teaching. 

100. Hoxv may the Natural Sciences be properly taught in 

common schools? 
By familiar oral lessons and object lessons on the simpler 
principles. 

101. Should a text-book on this subject be introduced? 

No; the number of books for pupils should not be in- 
creased. 

102. What can be said of teaching Science to young children by 

boohs? 
"The great blunder that our people make, I think, is at- 
tempting to teach [science] from books. Our school- 
masters have largely been taught from books, and noth- 
ing but books, and so make nothing of scientific teaching. 
If you are setting to work to teach a child science, you 
must teach it through its eyes, and its hands, and its 
senses." — Prof. Huxley. 

103. Which of the Natural Sciences has a high rank for the 

development of the observi?ig faculties of young chil- 
dren ? 
Botany. 



3 o THE ART OF INSTRUCTION. 

104. Horv should Botany be taught to young pupils!' 

By oral lessons about plants, their different parts, and how 
they grow, omitting technical terms. 

105. If a plant is placed in the hands of the pupil, zvhat should 

be the purpose of the questions asked? 
To lead him to observe what is not readily seen, and to 
think about the uses of the different parts. 

106. What is the effect of thinking on observing}' 

"It is at first thought strange — although it is true — that 
powers of observation ai-e to be strengthened only by 
teaching the pupil to think upon what he sees." — W. T. 
Harris. 

107. What distinction may be made between the educative effects 

of Oral and Written exercises? 
In general, oral exercises cultivate promptness, and test 
the range of the pupil's knowledge; written exercises 
cultivate the power of continuous thinking, and test the 
accuracy of his knowledge. 

108. What should be kept constantly in view in questioning.* 
The main object of the school-room is to train the pupils 

to think properly, and express their thoughts properly. 
By a careful wording of the question, the teacher will 
not only make the children think, but will give them 
power to express their thoughts. 

109. Give four main purposes of the Art of Questioning. 
(1) To induce a reproduction of the pupil's knowledge. 

(2) To stimulate his curiosity and his diligence. (3) To 
resolve potential knowledge and energy into actual 
knowledge and power. (4) To keep the teacher informed 
of the mental state and the mental needs of his pupils. 

no. What are the "Nine Laivs " of Pestalozzi? 

(1) Activity is the law of childhood. Accustom the child 
to do — educate the hand. (2) Cultivate the faculties in 
their natural order. First form the mind, and then fur- 
nish it. (3) Begin with the senses, and never tell a child 
what he can discover himself. (4) Reduce the subject to 
its elements. One difficulty at a time is enough for a 
child. (5) Proceed step by step; be thorough. (6) Let 
every lesson have a point. (7) Develop the idea, then 
give the term. (8) Proceed from the known to the un- 



THE ART OF INSTRUCTION. 31 

known. (9) Synthesis, then analysis; not the order of 
the subject, but the order of nature. 

in. What celebrated terms used by David P. Page to describe 
two bad methods of teaching? 
"The Pouring-in Process" and "The Drawing-out Process." 

112. What did Page mean by the "pouring-in process"? 

" Lecturing to a class of children upon every subject which 
occurs to the teacher, it being his chief aim to bring 
before them as many facts in a limited time as possible." 

113. What is the great objection to this method? 

It makes the mind of the pupil a passive recipient, and does 
not call into exercise his own powers. It is altogether 
unphilosophical. 

114. What is the "drawing-out process " as described by Page? 
"This consists in asking what lawyers call leading ques- 
tions. It is practiced usually whenever the teacher 
wants to help along the pupil." 

115. What is the great objection to this method? 

The teacher does the thinking for the pupil; it "has a direct 
tendency to make the scholar miserably superficial. For 
why should he study, if he knows from constant experi- 
ence that the teacher by a leading question will relieve 
him from all embarrassment ?" 

116. What did Page regard as " the more excellent tvay "? 
"That the pupil should be taught mainly to depend 

on his own resources." 

117. Why should not teachers make a practice of answering 

hard questions and solving difficult problems for their 
pupils? 
Because the pupils should be led to exert their own powers, 
and to overcome difficulties. 

118. Should pupils be reproved for asking assistance from the 

teacher? 
No; this is harsh, and may discourage them. 

119. What should be done when pupils ask assistance? 
Neither reprove nor relieve them from labor. Refer them to 

some principles lost sight of; enlighten them a little; "put 
them on the scent," and leave them to achieve the victory. 



32 THE ART OF INSTRUCTION. 

120. How far should a pupil be assisted in the preparation of 

his lesson? 
Just so far that he may know how to go about the prepara- 
tion of it in a proper way. If the lesson is unusually 
difficult, it is proper for the teacher to point out the dif- 
ficulties, and suggest their solution, but no more. 

121. What objections have been urged against the old-fashioned 

Public Examinations? 

That they were merely show-offs for public effect, causing 
intense excitement and worry among the pupils. 

122. For what purpose have School Exhibitions been usually 

given ? 
For the public display of some of the ornamental accom- 
plishments of the pupils, such as music, declamation, 
calisthenics, etc. 

123. What is the great objection to the ordinary School Exhi- 

bition? 
It perverts the regular order of school exercises into a 
special preparation for display. 

124. What is meant by a School Exposition? 

It is a method of exhibiting to the public in a systematic 
manner the progress and attainments of the pupils in 
their regular school studies. 

125. What are sometimes termed "the souls gateways" and ruhy? 
The senses; they are so termed because they are the means 

of communication between the soul or mind and the 
external world. 

126. In the education of the senses what two qualities should 

be especially cultivated^ 1 
Quickness in receiving impressions, and strength in taking 
hold of impressions. 

127. What is a Kindergarten? 

A kind of infant school, founded by Froebel, the instruc- 
tion of which is intended to precede all other elementary 
education, and to prepare the child for the use of books 
by training all its powers, and particularly to train the 
hands and senses. 

128. What mca?is are used in the Kindergarten for the earliest 

training of the senses? 
Playthings, called Gifts. 



THE ART OF INSTRUCTION. 33 

129. What is the First Gift? 

Six elastic balls of different colors, with strings attached 
to them. 

130. What is the Second Gift? 

A ball, cube, and cylinder — all of wood. 

131. What is the Third Gift? 

A two-inch cube of wood divided into eight smaller cubes 
by being cut in each of its three dimensions. 

132. What is the Fourth Gift? 

A cube of the same size as the third gift, but divided into 
eight brick-shaped blocks by one horizontal and three 
vertical cuts. 

133. What is the Fifth Gift? 

A three-inch cube cut into thirty-nine pieces. 

134. What is the Sixth Gift? 

Twenty-seven brick-shaped blocks, some of which are bi- 
sected into prisms. 

135. Name some other kinds of apparatus used in Kinder- 

garten instruction. 
Paper for cutting, weaving paper, jointed slats, drawing slates 
and paper, material for modeling, building blocks, etc. 

136. At xvhat age did Froebel intend the first six gifts to be used? 
They were for infant instruction; the first gift is intended 

as one of the first playthings of the child; the second gift 
is intended for the infant at about the age of six months ; 
the third gift at about the age of two years, and all of 
them are to be placed in the hands of the child before he 
begins to learn his letters. 

137. What are the principal exercises of the Kindergarten be 

sides the employment of gifts and apparatus? 

Games, plays, marching, singing, light gymnastics, conver- 
sational object lessons, etc. 

138. What is the practical result of Kindergarten culture? 

" It has been found that the children who come from the 
Kindergarten excel the others in ability of self-help, in 
maturity and quickness of sense, perception, and in their 
grasping thought." — Report of St. Louis Schools. 



34 THE ART OF INSTRUCTION. 

139. How is the teacher to keep the restless little children quiet 

■while hearing others recite? 
Constant but varied employment for the little ones at their 
seats is absolutely necessary. 

140. What are the prime essentials of such employments? 
That they should be both interesting and profitable. 

141. What has been the chief resource in keeping little children 

busy? 
The slate and pencil. 

142. Name some of the various devices for keeping little chil- 

dren, who are too young to study, employed at their seats. 
Clay modeling, use of dissected pictures, picture books, let- 
ter-cards and word-cards. 

143. In what zvay have shoe pegs been employed in the primary 

school? 
The little child is given a number of pegs or wooden tooth- 
picks, and follows its own fancy or the lead of the teacher 
in laying them in systematical forms. They are only 
used for very young children. 

144. Which should be taught first, Technical Grammar or 

Composition ? 
Composition, Language Lessons, and Sentence-Making 
should precede Technical Grammar. 

145. Horv may a teacher stimulate the youngest pupils? 

By encouraging them in their efforts, and speaking approv- 
ingly of their work. The teacher should go among the 
little ones at their seats, inspect their work, encourage 
the timid, and provide pleasant employment for them. 

146. What eminent Philosopher decried the study of Mathe- 

matics ? 
Sir William Hamilton. 

147. What declaration did he make concerning the study of 

Mathematics? 
" That there is no faculty which is cultivated by the study 
of mathematics which may hot be as well cultivated by 
the study of some other science." 
14S. Have the views of Hamilton been generally accepted on 
this point? 
No; not only Mathematicians, but Educators generally, 



THE ART OF INSTRUCTION. 



35 



maintain that there is no study which disciplines the 
mind in so many ways as Mathematics. 

State some results of Mathematical studies upon the mind 
of the learner. 

They cultivate a habit of mind which rests satisfied only 
with clear and definite conceptions, and the power of 
clothing such conceptions in language unmistakable, and 
are an admirable logical drill. 

What is meant by the Genetic Method? 

It is another name for the Developing Method. 

For what different purposes should pupils be taught to 
use the Dictionary!' 

For spelling, pronunciation, definitions, synonyms, ety- 
mology and illustrations of the use of words. 

Give a common but defective manner of using the dic- 
tionary in Orthoepy. 

Many persons learn how to find only the accented syllable 
when they look for the pronunciation of a word. 

What instruction in dictionary pronunciation should be 
given ? 

Pupils should be taught the exact use of all the marks in 
orthoepy, and to spell by sound the words according to 
the pronunciation in the dictionary. 

Illustrate the critical use of the dictionary by the word 

"ifiterest." 
The word interest as a noun and as a verb is pronounced 

differently, although in both cases it is accented on the 

first syllable; the difference being solely in the sound of 

the vowel in the last syllable. 
What is Arbor Dayf 
It is a day in several States appointed by the Governor 

which the people and children of the public schools are 

requested to devote to the interests of tree planting. 
Hotu and where did Arbor Day originate? 
The Governor of Nebraska several years ago appointed 

a day to be devoted to tree planting, and it is said 

12,000,000 trees were planted on that day. 
What hind of instruction is appropriate on Arbor Day? 
Pupils should be interested in the history of famous trees, 

and taught the value, uses and need of forests. 



36 DISCIPLINE AND GOVERNMENT. 

1 15S. Hozv far should every teacher 's methods of instruction 
be original with himself? 
Every teacher must originate his own plans of conducting 
lessons so far as to adapt them to the particular needs 
of his own school; he ought not to servilely follow the 
methods of any author. 

159. What caution is to be observed in studying Nezv Methods? 
It should be borne in mind that the latest is not necessarily 

the best method, and that every new method should be 
subjected to the test of experience and common sense. 

160. Why is it that there are so many zvho are called "good 

scholars" at school, of zvhom zvc hear nothing in after life? 
Their good scholarship had in it no impulse to go on 
to greater attainments. Their learning was a mere 
reception, as a sponge filled with water. 



Discipline and G-overnment. 



What does School Discipline include? 

All regulations, prohibitions, restraints and stimulants de- 
signed to regulate the habits of study and deportment 
during school life. 

What are the objects of School Discipline? 

To prevent or cure school vices and to cultivate school virtues. 

Name some school vices. 

Idleness, whispering, disorderly movements, injury to prop- 
erty, rudeness of speech or act. 

Name some school virtues. 

Punctuality, promptness, obedience, truthfulness, earnest- 
ness, diligence, thoroughness and courtesy. 

Are the powers of the School- Master more or less limited 
nozv than in former times? 

They are more limited now than formerly. 

Hozv are they limited? 

By the laws of the State and by the regulations of School - 
Boards and Superintendents. 



DISCIPLINE AND GOVERNMENT. 37 

7. Are many or few rules in the school-room advisable? 

A multiplicity of rules tend to confuse the pupils and to 
multiply offenses. Rules should be as few as possible. 

8. Is it possible to dispense with formal rules in the school? 
Some good teachers dispense with them. 

9. What are the results of over-government and constant 

restraint? 
They place the pupil in an atmosphere of tyranny and arbi- 
trary power, and engender a feeling of resistance. 

10. What are the best results of School Government? 
Voluntary obedience and self-control. 

11. Is it possible to have a school too still? 

Page says: "There is such a thing as keeping a school too 
still — a death-like silence — the stillness of restraint, not 
of activity." 

12. What are some of the means of preserving quiet without 

restraint? 
By keeping the pupils busy and interested, and varying the 
exercises so as to avoid monotony. 

13. In what way may Gymnastics serve to preserve order? 

" They serve as a safety-valve to let off the excess of animal 
spirits." 

14. In what spirit should a teacher govern? 
In that of kindness united with firmness. 

15. What ends should be kept in view in seating p tip Us? 

That they may appear uniform; not disturb each other in 
necessary movements; temptations to play and mischief 
be removed; and all be easily seen by the teacher. 

16. What three purposes may School Punishment serve? 
(1) Reformatory, (2) Deterrent, (3) Incapacitating. 

17. What is meant by Reformatory Punishment? 

That which has the reformation of the offender in view. 

18. What are Deterrent Punishments? 

Those which serve as a warning or admonition against future 
offenses. 

19. What are Incapacitating Punishments? 

Those which for a time incapacitate the offender from a 
repetition of his offense, as by isolating him or depriving 
him of a privilege he has abused. 



38 DISCIPLINE AND GOVERNMENT. 

20. May the same punishment serve two or more of these 

purposes? 
It may. 

21. What punishments are to be preferred? 

Those which leave a permanent good effect both on the 
offender and the whole school. 

22. What punishments are to be avoided? 

Those which are brutal, cruel, degrading and humiliating. 

23. What is to be said of Corporal Punishment? 

It has the sanction of high authority and time-honored 
example, but in modern times has fallen much into disre- 
pute and disuse. 

24. What iv as Dr. 'Johnson's testimony in favor of the rod? 
"My master whipped me very well; without that I should 

have done nothing." 

25. How did John Locke characterize the rod? 

"The usual, lazy and short way of chastisement; the most 
unfit of any to be used in education." 

26. What were Locke's arguments against the rod? 

It accustoms the child to act less from reason than fear 
of pain, and it abases and breaks the spirit. 

27. Did Locke think Corporal Punishment should ever be 

applied? 

He says "very rarely to be applied, and that only in great 
occasions and cases of extremity." 

28. What is the prevailing view of modern Educators on Cor- 

poral Punishment? 

They discourage its frequent infliction, but generally recog- 
nize its necessity in extreme cases. 

29. What is the tendency of Public opinion on this kind of pun- 

ishment? 

It is in the direction of its abolition, and is decidedly against 
frequent and severe castigations. 

30. In what different ways has Corporal Punishment been 

abolished? 
By law in some States; by regulations of School Boards in 
some towns and cities, and by the advice of Superintend- 
ents in some graded schools. 



DISCIPLINE AND GOVERNMENT. 39 

31. Is any distitiction between the sexes to be observed in the 

use of the rod? 

Some good and experienced teachers say: Never whip 
girls. 

32. What is Public opinion on this point? 

It is more strongly against the beating of girls than boys. 
In many places a teacher who would whip a girl would 
lose his position. 

33. What caution is to be observed in the punishment of very 

you ng ch ildren ? 
They should never be severely flogged. 

34. What is Corporal Punishment? 

It is the infliction of physical pain as a punishment. 

35. Name some other forms of Corporal Punishment besides 

the use of the rod. 

Standing on one foot, or in a painful position; kneeling on a 
sharp edge of wood; holding the arm extended for a great 
length of time, etc. 

36. Should physical punishment ever be inflicted on the head? 
No; pulling the hair or ears, rapping the head, boxing the 

ears, or slapping the cheeks, should be avoided. 

37. Give George B. Emerson 's argument against the rod. 
"The great objection to Corporal Punishment is the fact 

that it excites angry passions, not only in the child, but in 
the master, and more in the latter than the former." 

38. If the teacher finds Corporal Punishment necessary, in 

■what spirit should he regard it? 
As only a necessary evil, and he should regret the necessity, 
and carefully guard the temper in which he administers it. 

39. Should any instrument of Corporal Punishment be kept in 

view of the school? 
No. 

40. What is the best advice to teachers on the use of the rod? 
Do not resolve never to use it, but try to avoid it; good 

order is to be maintained at all hazards. 

41. In xvhat different senses is the word Discipline used? 

(1) As nearly synonymous with training or culture; (2) de- 
noting school government; (3) meaning punishment of 
offenses. 



4 o 



DISCIPLINE AND GOVERNMENT. 



42. What effect has work on good order? 

Work both by teacher and pupils is one of the most power- 
ful aids in securing order. Indolence causes idleness, and 
idleness leads to confusion and insubordination. 

43. Should the teacher compel his pupils to work? 

It is best to secure industry indirectly, by guiding and di- 
recting tbe natural self-activity of the pupils, and by 
arousing and inspiring them. 

44. Name one of the strongest allies of the teacher in Govern- 

ment and Discipline. 
Public opinion both in and outside the school -room. 

45. What should be the teacher s endeavor with respect to 

Public opinion? 
To employ it to secure good order, punctuality and good 
habits. 

46. Why should the teacher endeavor to have Public opinion 

on his side? 
Because it is impossible for him to long stand up with both 
pupils and patrons against him. 

47. What is the first step in enlisting Public opinion on the 

teacher '5 side? 
Gaining the confidence of pupils and patrons. 

48. What is the distinction between Prizes and Rewards? 
Prizes are rewards gained by contest or competition; re- 
wards are conferred for well-doing, whether gained by 
competition or not. 

49. To what do offers of Prizes, Rewards and Marks of 

Merit appeal? 
To emulation. 

50. What is Emulation? 

A desire to excel others, 
t; 1 . Is it proper to appeal to Emulation as an incentive in school? 
There is a great difference of opinion on this point. 

52. What do the opponents of Prizes say? 

That emulation is a baser passion, and pupils should work 
from higher motives. 

53. What do the advocates of Prizes say? 

That emulation is a lively and generous ardor implanted by 
nature for the good of man. 



DISCIPLINE AND GOVERNMENT. 41 

54. What are some of the objections to Prizes? 

They often cause ill-feeling among pupils and parents, and 
induce a few only of a class to apply themselves with 
eagerness. 

55. What is an argument in favor of Prizes? 

The love of approbation and a desire of distinction are 
powerful and not unworthy incentives. 

56. Should money be offered as Prizes? 
No; for it might encourage cupidity. 

57. What may be considered a fair view of the -whole system 

of Rexvards, Medals and Merit- Marks? 

They are not the highest incentives, but are far better than fear. 

58. When may Emulation be e?icouraged, and when should it 

be discouraged? 

When it brings with it only an ennobling desire to excel, it 
may be used as an incentive; when it leads to rivalry 
and envy, it should not be employed. 

59. What is the lowest of all incentives in school discipline? 
Fear. 

60. What tvas Dr. Johnson 's defe?ise of the use of Fear? 

"Children, not being reasonable, can be governed only by 
fear." 

61. Is this a correct statement? 

It is entirely too broad and sweeping. 

62. What is Edward Everett's expression on this point? 

"A school can be governed only by patient, enlightened 
Christian love, the master principle of our natures. It 
softens the ferocity of the savage; it melts the felon in his 
cell. In the management of children, it is the great 
source of influence." 

63. What was Horace Manns expression concerning Fear in 

the school-room? 
" No frighted water-fowl, whose plumage the bullet of the 
sportsman has just grazed, dives quicker beneath the 
surface than a child's spirit darts from your eye when 
you have nlied it with the sentiment of fear," 



42 DISCIPLINE AND GOVERNMENT. 

64. Name some of the principal incentives to study and good 

conduct, about the use of which there is much difference 
of opinion. 
Prizes, merit-marks, emulation, fear of punishment, shame 
and ridicule. 

65. Should pupils ever be made to study as a punishment? 
They should not, and study should never be looked upon 

as a punishment. 

66. Should pupils ever be punished for not studying} 

They should not, unless the neglect to study is accompanied 
with insolence, open disobedience or rebellion. 

67. How would you preve?it Tardiness? 

By inculcating the sentiment that punctuality is one of the 
highest of school-virtues. Written excuses from parents 
or guardians may be required where this is practicable. 

68. How can the importance of punctuality be illustrated? 

By showing its necessity to success in life in this age of rail- 
roads and telegraphs. 

69. How should parents be notified of the absence of children? 
Either personally or by a note, with the expression of the 

hope that it is not from sickness. 

70. Why should the teacher notify parents of the absence of 

children? 
It discourages absenteeism, and shows the parent that the 
teacher is interested in the welfare of his children. 

71. What does a high degree of absenteeism indicate? 

Either inefficient management and instruction on the part of 
the teacher or a low tone in the community on the subject 
of education. 

72. How is the suspension or discharge of a pupil for ab- 

senteeism justified? 
On the theory that a pupil who is absent repeatedly is not 
only receiving no benefit from the school, but is a positive 
injury to other pupils, and a serious embarrassment to the 
teacher. 

73. What can the teacher do to encourage Promptness? 

Be on time every day; give signals for order at the exact 
moment; call every class at its proper time; never slight a 
lesson. 



DISCIPLINE AND GOVERNMENT. 43 

74. What may be observed concerning signal and call-bells? 

A single, sharp tap is better than a prolonged ringing. The 
former seems to say "Attend now", the latter, "Attend 
at your leisure". 

75. What is to be said of loud and repeated rapping to secure 

silence? 
A single, slight tap on the table will command attention and 
secure silence, but if repeated frequently it loses its effect; 
if violently made it defeats its purpose. 

76. Hoxv long should be the daily sessions of school? 
Not more than six hours. 

77. If day-laborers -work eight or ten hours, ivhy should not 

teachers? 
If the teachers could stand it, the children cannot. 

78. What is to be observed concerning the confinement of little 

children? 
Their restless dispositions renders shorter sessions or longer 
or more frequent intermissions necessary. 

79. What has been observed as to half-time pupils? 

That they often make as rapid progress as those who attend 
all day, 

80. How should a new teacher greet his pupils on first meeting 

them ? 

Cordially; but he should not appear anxious to become 
familiar. 
Si. Should the teacher on the first day begin zvith an address? 

Two or three minutes are enough for the teacher's "In- 
augural"; a few words of greeting, a hope for good 
conduct and a successful school are all that is necessary. 

82. What is important on the first day to impress the pupils 

with the idea that the teacher is Master of his business? 
He should go to the school-house with a distinct plan of 
work for the day marked out, and of the order in which 
the several steps are to be taken. 

83. Should the daily program be made out the first day? 

It should, and be placed on the blackboard. Changes in the 
program should be made as they may be found necessary. 

84. When should the most exhaustive lessons be heard? 
Early in the day or directly after recreation. 



44 DISCIPLINE AND GOVERNMENT. 

85. What should the Register contain." 

An exact statement of the enrollment, the number of days' 
and half-days' attendance of each pupil, the number of 
days' and half-days' absence, and such other matters as the 
school officers require the teacher to report, 

86. On what rule or principle did Joseph Lancaster explain 

the wonderful discipline maintained in his monotorial 
schools? 
He said, " Let every child have, at all times, something to 
do, and a motive for doing it." 

87. What objection may be urged against the Self-reporting 

System ? 
That it holds out such strong inducements to untruthful- 
ness that many are unable to resist them. 

88. Should pupils be encouraged to report the misdemeanors of 

others? 
No. 

89. What are the principal causes of disorder in school? 
Idleness; want of interest in the school exercises; lack of 

respect for the teacher. 

90. Define Ethics and School- Ethics. 

Ethics is the science of human rights and duties; school- 
ethics relates to the rights and duties of persons connected 
with the school. 

91. Name the persons connected with the school whose rights 

and duties should be regarded. 
(1) The Teacher, (2) the School Officers, (3) the Patrons 
and Tax-Payers, (4) the Pupils. 

92. Is there any objection to Tip-toeing? 

It has been objected to, but certainly the ability to enter 
a public assembly without touching the heel to the floor 
should be acquired by all. 

93. How do you explain the fact that the higher and more uniform 

the standard of school-order, the easier it is to sustain it? 
On the principle that order begets order, and disorder 
begets disorder. 

94. Should the Teacher or Pupils be chiefly blamed for an 

untidy school-room? 
The Teacher. 



DISCIPLINE AND GOVERNMENT. 45 

95. What is meant by a natural punishment? 

One which is the necessary, fitting and appropriate resultant 
of the offense. 

96. Give some illustrations of natural punishments. 

The pupil who makes a litter on the floor may be required 
to sweep it up, A pupil who abuses a privilege may be 
deprived of the privilege for a limited time. 

97. What may be said to be a natural punishment for Tardiness? 
Remaining after school hours. 

98. What is the best plan of calling out classes? 

By signals, as by a call-bell; not by naming the class. 

99. Is it ever proper to resort to Corporal Punishment to 

secure the preparation of lessons? 

Probably not. 

100. How do you explain the fact that some teachers govern 

easily without Corporal Punishment, while others can 
scarcely sustain their authority by frequent resorts to 
such ptmishments? 

The whole explanation is to be found in the difference 
in tact and governing power of the teacher. 

101. Why should punishment never be inflicted without expla- 

nation? 

A boy has the right to know why he receives punishment 
before it is inflicted. If the teacher does not take the 
trouble to give him this explanation in a perfectly candid 
manner, he gives the pupil just cause for regarding him 
as a petty tyrant, who punishes merely for the personal 
gratification it affords him. 



4 6 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 



School Economy. 



What is meant by School Economy f 

It is a general term applied to the collective body of princi- 
ples and rules by which the keeping of schools is regulated. 

Name some topics it embraces. 

The construction of school-houses, the selection of school- 
sites, school- furniture, apparatus, modes of organization 
and administration. 

What are some of the evils common to our Country Schools? 

Too many pupils, poor classification, a lack of information 
on the part of directors and parents relative to the aim and 
intent of our free school system, low wages, too many 
young and inefficient teachers, and a want of co-operation 
between parents and teachers. 

Hoiv large should the school-lot be? 

An acre is not too large for the smallest district school; 
large graded schools need much more. 

What advantages result from large school-grounds in the 
country? 

They afford room for play and exercise, and children are not 
forced into the public highways, to the annoyance of 
passers-by. 

Name some of the requisites of good school-grounds. 

(i) Thorough drainage, (2) trees for shade and ornament, (3) 
a good sod, (4) a good supply of water, (5) house for fuel, 
and sepai-ate closets for the sexes. 

What may be said to be the first essential of a school-house 
site in a hygienic point of view? 

Dryness and thorough drainage; no school -house should 
stand on undrained, marshy ground, or in close proximity 
to stagnant ponds. 

What purposes may trees in the school-yard serve? 

For health, comfort and refined taste, and to furnish sub- 
jects of study. 



SCHOOL ECONOMT. tf 

9. Ho-i.v should the groitnds be grassed? 

With the thickest, closest and strongest turf possible. 

10. What are some of the effects of impure air in the school- room ? 
Ill-natured fretfulness, incapacity for sustained mental 

effort, laxity of tissues and pulmonary disease. 

1 1 . What are the two objects of ventilation ? 

(1) To maintain a steady and ample supply of fresh air; (2) 
to withdraw the foul air from all parts of the room. 

12. How does fresh air enter a building apart from openings, 

crevices, etc.? 
A considerable amount of air passes through the walls, 
especially through ordinary frame or brick walls with 
common plaster interiors. 

13. What is the result of this fact in ventilation? 

The air in the room will sympathize with the direction of 
the wind, no matter how tightly the windows and doors 
may be closed. 

14. What is the effect of a strong wind on a freely exposed 

building? 
An inward movement of air through the walls of the Avind- 
ward side. 

15. What is the cause of the streaked appearance of the ceilings 

of old rooms? 
The heated air passes through the ceiling, and, passing more 
freely through the plastering between the laths, leaves 
streaks of dust between them, 

16. How does a pupil vitiate the air of a school-room? 
By breathing, by perspiration, and by exhalation. 

17. How much air will one pupil vitiate? 

Each pupil will render from eight to ten cubic feet of air 
unfit for re-breathing every minute. 

18. How many cubic feet of space should be allowed each pupil? 
Not less than one hundred and twenty. 

19. What effect on air does its use for life purposes have in a 

closed room? 
Its oxygen is diminished; its carbonic acid, aqueous vapor 
and organic exhalations are increased. 



! 



48 SCHOOL ECONOMY, 

20. What arc usually the chief poisonous elements in air 

vitiated by breathing? 
Carbonic acid and organic exhalations. 

21. What are the relative weights of carbonic acid gas, cold air, 

and warm air? 
Carbonic acid gas is heavier than air; cold air is heavier 
than warm. 

22. What is the great problem of ventilating a room heated 

by a stove in w inter? 
To maintain a constant change of air without perceptible 
drafts. 

23. Hoiv can a draft of cold air be avoided? 

By admitting fresh air through several small apertures. 

24. Hoiv can the windows be arranged to admit fresh air 

without drafts on the pupils? 
By closely fitting a board about six inches wide underneath 
the bottom sash, so that the sash may be raised; on raising 
the sash the cold air will pass in between the upper and 
lower sashes, and injurious drafts be avoided. 

25. What are Tobin's tubes? 

Ventilating tubes used in England, set upright against the 
wall, admitting outside air at their lower ends, and empty- 
ing it just above the heads of occupants. 

26. What is meant by unilateral lighting of a room? 
Admitting light only from one side. 

27. What is the object of unilateral lighting? 
To prevent cross-lights. 

28. Where is unilateral lighting of school-rooms required by 

law? 
In many parts of Europe, especially Germany. 

29. Why is it most convenient to have light come from the left 

side? 
To prevent the shadow of the hand interfering with writing 
and drawing. 

30. What difficulty is there in unilateral lighting? 

Unless the windows can be made large and high it is dif- 
ficult to admit sufficient light for the whole room. 



SCHOOL ECONOMY. 



49 



31. What is Myopia? 

Near-sightedness, and results from a lengthening of the 
eyeball from front to rear. 

32. What are some of the causes of Myopia in schools? 
Much confinement indoors, straining the eye in consequence 

of defective light, or small or defective type, long, un- 
interrupted use of books, and ill -health from impure air, 
innutritious food or other causes. 

33. What is the effect of light from the front of the pupil? 

It contracts the pupil, and thus obscures vision, and is un- 
comfortable to the eye. 

34. What can you say with reference to the hearing of pupils ? 
The teacher should never forget that acuteness of hearing 

varies greatly both from permanent and temporary causes, 
and that imperfect hearing is a great hindrance to intel- 
lectual progress, and especially to a correct and elegant 
enunciation. 

35. What should be the temperature of a school-room? 

At from 65 to 70 degrees, and fluctuations should be avoided 
as much as possible. 

36. Hoxv high should the desk be above the scat? 

It should be high enough to enable the pupil to sit nearly 
but not quite erect when writing, but not so as to raise one 
shoulder above the other. 

37. What bad effects result from ill-arranged desks? 
Curvature of the spine and stooping of the shoulders. 

38. Hoxv should pupils sit while studying? 

Nearly erect, with the arm supported so as to be at right 
angles to the line of vision. 

39. Should pupils be required to sit on benches without backs? 
No; and recitation seats should have backs. 

40. Hoxv high should the seat be above the floor? 

So that the sole of the foot may rest easily on the floor. 

41. If seats are too high xvhat is the effect? 

The muscles and nerves of the leg and thigh are compressed. 

42. If scats are too low xvhat is the effect? 

The thighs are compressed against the stomach. 

4 



s" 



SCHOOL ECONOMY. 



.\\ Mention some highly useful articles of furniture not always 
found in school- rooms. 
A clock, a call -bell, a thermometer, a numerical frame, a 
terrestrial globe. 
14 What good effects may result from good taste displayed in 
school- fit ru itu re t 
The fostering of good taste in the pupils; the young are 
particularly susceptible of surrounding influences. 

45. Hotu may vandalism regarding school-furniture, be dis- 

couraged, and a respect for public property be encouraged? 
" Rough, neglected, untidy conditions in and about school 
promises lead to vandalism and to habits of disrespect for, 
and carelessness regarding public property, and these to 
habits of disregard for public interests generally. Oppo- 
site conditions tend to opposite results. It was formerly 
considered a mark of exceptional power in a teacher if a 
school-house had been kept even measurably free from the 
intrusions of jack-knife and pencil. It is now coming to 
be the exception if the well-finished furniture of school 
buildings is not thoroughly respected." — D. F. DeWolf. 

46. What three different terms arc applied in the United States 

to schools for free elementary education? 
Public Schools, Free Schools, and Common Schools. 

47. Hozv do modern Public Schools differ from ancient Free 

Schools? 
The earliest Free Schools were for the education of poor 
children; the modern Public Schools are not eleemosynary 
institutions, but Seminaries for the poor and rich in 
common. 

48. Where has the pri?iciple of providing gratuitous instruc- 

tion for all classes been carried out to its fullest extent? 
In the New England and northern States of the United States. 

49. What is the great distinction between the English and 

American system of public provision for education? 
In the United States the Public Schools are generally 
wholly free; in England, grants are made not to make full 
provision for the support of schools, but in aid of local 
exertion. 

50. What is the ftindamental principle underlying free public 

education } 
That the property of the State should educate the children 
of the State. 



SCHOOL ECONOMY. $i 

51. How can the taxation of one man for the education of the 

children of another be justified} 
On the ground that the establishment of Free Schools is an 
act both of justice and expediency, and that where free 
education prevails there is more public and private virtue 
and more social order and public stability. 

52. Can patriotism be properly taught in our Public Schools? 
" One-half of the time which is now almost wholly wasted 

in district schools on English Grammar, attempted at too 
early an age, would be sufficient to teach our children to 
love the Republic, and to become its loyal and life-long 
supporters." — Gen. J. A. Garfield. 

53. What is meant by school age? 

The age fixed by law at which children may attend the 
Public Schools gratuitously. 

54. What is the school age in the United States? 

It varies in different States; it begins at six and ends at 
twenty -one in many States. 

55. What is the object of the law i?i providing for Teachers'* 

Certificates? 
To prevent the Public School-Fund from being paid to in- 
competent teachers, and to guard the Public Schools 
against such teachers. 

56. Why are not teachers of Private Schools required to obtain 

certificates? 
Because they are not paid out of public funds. 

57. What is to be said of teachers engaging schools before they 

have certificates? 
It is a bad practice, and in some States illegal. 

58. What arc the usual requisites for a Teacher's Certificate? 
(1) A good moral character, (2) qualification to teach certain 

elementary branches, (3) an adequate knowledge of the 
theory and practice of teaching. 

59. Should a teacher insist upon a written contract with the 

directors? 
If this has not been the custom in the district it might seem 
in bad taste. 

60. State some of the causes for which directors may dismiss a 

teacher. 
Immoral conduct, inability either to govt rn or teach, willful 
violation of a legal order of the directors. 



52 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 

61. Of what offense is a teacher gnilty when he inflicts cruel or 

immoderate Corporal Punishment? 
Assault and battery. 

62. hi States where Corporal Punishment is not forbidden by 

laxu when is a teacher guilty of "assault and battery''' 1 ? 
"A schoolmaster is liable criminally if, in inflicting punish- 
ment upon his pupil, he goes beyond the limits of reason- 
able castigation, and, either in mode or degree of correc- 
tion, is guilty of any unreasonable or disproportionate 
violence or force." — Massachusetts Decision. 

63. What is to be said of punishment for misconduct out of 

school and outside the school- yard? 
It is of doubtful legality, and almost always impolitic. 

64. Have teachers the right to detain pupils after school hours ? 
They have a right to detain pupils after school hours for 

a reasonable time. 

65. What is to be said of the reading of the Bible in the Public 

Schools} 
It has been, and still is, the subject of animated discussion 
and contention. 

66. Where and when xvas this question most fully argued? 

In the courts of Ohio, in 1870, in a case which went to the 
Supreme Court from Cincinnati. 

67. Who argued in this case in favor of the Bible in Public 

Schools? 

George R. Sage, William M. Ramsey and Rufus B. King. 

68. Who argued against the reading of the Bible in Public 

Schools? 

Stanley Matthews, George Hoadly and J. B. Stallo. 

69. What was the Decision of the Supreme Court? 

The court unanimously sustained the Cincinnati Board of 
Education in forbidding the reading of the Bible in the 
Public Schools, and the rule of the Board has ever since 
been enforced. 

70. What notable Amendment to the U. S. Constitution has 

been proposed concerning religious instruction in the 
Public Schools? 

In 1875 President Grant recommended an Amendment to 
the U. S. Constitution forbidding the teaching, in Free 
Public Schools, of religious, atheistic or Pagan tenets. 



SCHOOL ECONOMT. 53 

71. What is the celebrated clause in the Ordinance of 1787 con- 

cerning Schools!' 
" Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good 
government and the happiness of mankind, schools and 
the means of education shall forever be encouraged." 

72. What distinction does our Government make between re- 

ligion and education, so far as the attitude of the Gov- 
ernment toward them is concerned? 
Under our government education is to be fostered and en- 
couraged by law; religion is left to voluntary support, the 
Church and State being kept forever separate. 

73. What docs our Government do for Schools and ivhat for 

Churches? 
The government supports schools by taxation; it only 
protects churches. 

74. Has the general government of the United States any 

power to establish and enforce a Public-School system? 
No. 

75. Give the reason. 

Because that power has never been delegated to the gen- 
eral government. 

76. Where does the power exist in this country to establish Free 

Public Schools? 
In the State governments. 

77. When rvas the National Bureau of Education organized 

and by what authority? 
March 2, 1S67, by act of Congress. 
7S. What is its chief officer called? 
The Commissioner of Education. 

79. Who have been U. S. Commissioners of Education? 
Henry Barnard, LL. D., was the first; he was succeeded in 

1S70 by John Eaton, who resigned in 1SS6. 

80. What is the purpose of the National Bureau of Education? 
To collect educational statistics and facts, and to diffuse such 

information as shall promote the cause of education. 

81. What legal power has the Btireau? 

It has no governing or directing power over teachers or State 
officers; it is simply an office of information. 



54 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 

52. Hoxu has Congress aided the Public Schools? 
Chiefly by land-grants. 

53. When did Congress make the first grants of land for schools? 
By the Ordinance of 17S7, which granted Section 16 in each 

Township of six miles square. 

84. What States have had the benefit of School Sections ? 

All the States admitted into the Union since the com- 
mencement of the present century. 

85. What States have had the benefit of tzvo sections in each 

Township? 
All States admitted since 1S48 have two School Sections, 
viz.: the 16th and 36th Sections. 

86. What is the officer called who is charged -with the supervi- 

sion of the educational interests in each State? 
State Commissioner of Schools, or State Superintendent 
of Instruction. 

87. What is meant by the School Fund? 

Property or money set apart for the support of schools, and 
in this country is derived chiefly from State and National 
appropriations. 

88. Hozv can you find the average per cent, of attendance? 
Multiply the average daily attendance by 100; divide the 

product by the average monthly enrollment: the quotient 
to the nearest integer will be the required result. 

89. What is the duty of teachers with respect to School Property? 
After the key of the school-house is given to the teacher, he 

has charge of the public property of the district, and 
he should exercise as much care over it and concern for 
its safety as he would for his own property. 

90. How should a teacher correct the improprieties of speech 

or manners of a pupil acquired at home? 
They shall be pointed out and kindly corrected in such a way 
as will not wound the feelings of' the pupil or subject him 
to ridicule. 

91. /;/ zuhat may a teacher be said not to be under the control of 

the School Board? 
In his methods of instruction and class management. In 
these he has his professional reputation to sustain, and 



SCHOOL ECONOMY. 



55 



may be presumed to know more than the Board. Al- 
though the Board have no right to interfere in these mat- 
ters, it is often better for the teacher to respect their wishes. 

<)2. W licit care over the health of pupils should the Teacher 
exercise!' 
It is his duty to see that a proper temperature is maintained 
in the school-room, that it is supplied with an abundance 
of pure air and light, that pupils maintain proper posi- 
tions, that in cold weather no pupil with damp clothes 
remains away from the fire, and that the seats and desks 
are suited to the ages of the pupils. 

93. What is a convenient scale of class grading? 

From o to 3; 3, indicating satisfactory; 2, a little defective; 
1, unsatisfactory; and o, entirely faulty. Some teachers, 
however, prefer a scale of 5 or 10. 

9f. Why should a teacher form a provisional program before 
entering the school the first morning." 

In order that no time be spent in hesitating what to do; the 
teacher should act with decision from the first, or an 
important point in the future discipline of the school may 
be lost. 

95. What may be said to be the direct object of common school 

teaching? 
To give our youth the elements of an English education, 
such as will lit them for the ordinary duties of life. 

96. What relation does the School hold to the State? 

The school is the agent of the State, appointed for the pur- 
pose of driving out and preventing ignorance, raising the 
standard of moral and literary oulture, and increasing the 
general prosperity. 

97. What is the purpose of a?i exami?iation? 

To inquire into the fitness of a pupil to be advanced into 
a higher grade, and to determine if he has that maturity 
of mental powers which will enable him to pursue suc- 
cessfully the studies of the advanced grade. 

98. Name some of the advantages of Teachers' 1 Meetings. 
Teachers' meetings are the only known means of giving 

harmony and proper efficiency to a system of instruction. 
That unity of purpose and of method which is indis- 



56 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 

pensable to success cannot be communicated in any other 
manner; nor is there any other way of giving due promi- 
nence to that esprit du corps which should animate a 
body of teachers. 

y). What is to be said of the "no recess" plan? 

It is not to be thought of in Country Schools. It is said to 
have worked well in some large cities. 

ioo. What distinction may be made between a Superintendent 
and a Principal of a graded school? 
The time of a Superintendent is exclusively or very largely 
employed in the general oversight of teachers and 
schools; he is rather an officer of the Board than a mem- 
ber of the corps of teachers. The principal teacher in 
a graded school, on the other hand, is almost exclusively 
engaged in teaching, and his legitimate title is Principal. 

101. What are the advantages of a Program? 

It gives system and order to the work of the school, and 
enables pupils to prepare their lessons at the proper time. 
Pupils will then have no excuse for a lack of preparation 
for the recitation. 

102. What arc the principal features of a good School Pro- 

gram? 
The time should be so divided as to do justice to all; 
should denote the times of day at which different branches 
may best be studied; different grades should alternate in 
recitation. 

103. State one of the greatest difficulties a teacher in an 

ungraded school has to contend against. 
The methods of instruction for children under and over 
seven years of age should be very different, and cannot 
be as efficiently carried on in the same as in separate 
rooms. 

104. State some principles which should be observed in the dis- 

tribution of time and subjects in the daily program. 
Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic stand first in import- 
ance; Reading requires most time in the lower sections, 
Arithmetic in the highest; ten minutes is long enough 
for lessons of young children, twenty minutes for the 
older; exercises requiring close thought should be alter- 
nated with those requiring manual dexterity or easy 
exercise of mind. 



HIS TORT OF EDUCATION. 57 



History of Education. 



What docs the History of Edtication include? 

The history of the institutions, principles, and methods by 
means of which youth have been educated from the earli- 
est times to the present day. 

What great change in education has the invention of the 
printing press produced? 

It has made dependence on the memory less necessary. 

Why was it necessary to rely more upon the memory before 
the invention of printing? 

Because books were rare, costly, and not so conveniently 
arranged for ready reference as at present. 

In zuhat did instruction in ancient times largely consist? 

In memorizing the maxims and wisdom of sages and phil- 
osophers. 

What picture has been given us of the schools of ancient India? 

The boys sat upon the sand in the open air, and wrote moral 
sentences from ancient sages, and then committed them to 
memory. 

In -whose hands chiefly was edtication in ancient times? 

In priests' hands. 

Why were Priests formerly the chief educators? 

Because they were almost the only learned men. 

What were the liberal arts of the Middle Ages? 

There were "seven liberal arts" which constituted an essen- 
tial part of a thorough education — Grammar, Logic, Rhet- 
oric, Music, Arithmetic, Geometry, and Astronomy. 

What was the Trivium? 

The three studies, Grammar, Logic, and Rhetoric, (the triple 

way to eloquence). 
. What was the ^jiadrivium? 

The four studies, Music, Arithmetic, Geometry, and As- 
tronomy, (the quadruple way). 



5 S HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 

n. Who was Aschamt 

Roger Ascham (Askam) was a celebrated English scholar 
and teacher, and Queen Elizabeth's teacher. 

12. What xvas Aschanis most noted work? 

" The Scholemaster, or a Plain and Perfite Way of Teach- 
ing Children to understand, read and write the Latin 
Tonge"; published after his death, in 1751. 

13. Who xvas Montaigne? 

A French essayist of the 16th century. One of his cele- 
brated essays is entitled "Of the Education of Children." 

14. Who xvas Ratich? 

Wolfgang Ratich was a distinguished German educator, 
born 1 571, and died 1635. He is known as one of the 
reformers of education. 

15. What work on education did John Milton writef 
"Tractate on Education", published in 16-14. 

16. Who was Co men i us? 

John Amos Comenius was a Moravian teacher, and one of 
the earliest of writers on the Philosophy of Education. 

17. What work on education did John Locke write? 
"Thoughts Concerning Education", published in 1093. 

18. Who xvas Rousseau? 

Jean Jacques Rousseau was a celebrated French author and 
philosopher of the iSth century. 

19. What work on education did Rousseau xvrite? 
"Emile" (pronounced Emeel), published in 1762. 

20. What rank does Emile hold among works on education? 

It is regarded by many as the most influential book on 
education ever written, although many of the views of 
the author are wholly impracticable. 

21. What is the significance of the title of Rousseau's great 

xvork on education? 

Emile is the name of a supposed boy, a full account of 
whose ideal education is given. 

22. Who was Basedoxv? 

A German educator and founder of the Philanthropin. His 
immediate followers were called Philanthropinists, 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 



59 



23. What xvas the Philanthropin? 

A celebrated educational institution founded at Dessau in 
1774 as a model school in which Basedow's principle 
were carried out. 

24. Who was the most distinguished of Educationists in mod 

cm times} 1 
Pestalozzi. 

25. Who xvas Pestalozzi? 

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi was a Swiss educator; born in 
1746, and died 1827. 

26. What xvas PestalozzVs definition of education? 
" Education is the generation of power." 

27. What xuas the great fundamental principle of Pestalozzi' 's 

system f 
The natural, progressive, and harmonious development of 
all the powers and faculties of the human being. 

28. Name some of Pestalozzi' 's Books. 

"Evening Hours of a Hermit," (17S0), " Lienhard and Ger- 
trude, a Book for the People," (17S1), "Investigations on 
the Course of Nature in the Development of Man," (1798), 
"How Gertrude Teaches Her Children," and "Book for 
Mothers." 

29. Where xvas PestalozzVs most celebrated school? 
At Yverdon, in Switzerland. 

30. For what purpose did Pestalozzi use object lessons? 

For the development of the observing and reasoning powers, 
not for the communication of facts about objects. 

31. IIoxv did he begin instruction? 

With the senses, and proceeded step by step, never telling 
the child what he could discover for himself. 

32. What were his principles concerning activity? 
"Activity is the law of childhood; accustom the child to do; 

educate the hand." 

33. What is the title of Herbert Spencer s principal xvork on 

education ? 
"Education: Intellectual, Moral, and Physical "; published 
in i860. 



60 HIS TORT OF EDUCATION. 

34. Name some of the distinctive features of Herbert Spen- 

cer's theory of education. 
The concrete should precede the abstract. Pleasure or 
interest is the test of the efficacy of instruction. The 
teaching of science should be the main business of educa- 
tion. 

35. Who zvas Froebel? 

Frederich Froebel was a celebrated German educator, and 
the inventor of the Kindergarten; born 17S2, died 1852. 

36. What influence did Pestalozzi have on Froebel? 

Froebel was an enthusiastic disciple and admirer of Pes- 
talozzi, and was associated with him in the school at 
Yverdun. 

37. What was the fundamental principle of Froebel? 

That the self-activity of the child should be cultivated In- 
constantly connecting doing with learning. 

38. What is the meaning of Kindergarten? 
A garden for children. 

39. Why did Froebel call his infant school a Kindergarten'!' 
Partly because .the school was to be located in a hall in 

a garden, and partly because the children were to be ten- 
derly nurtured, like plants. 

40. Why were Grammar Schools so called? 

Not because they gave instruction in English Grammar, but 
because teaching Latin, or Latin and Greek, was their 
special aim. 

41. What are Industrial Schools? 

Schools for instruction in certain industrial or business pur- 
suits, and in ordinary branches of learning. 

42. What are Manual-Labor Schools? 

Schools in which pupils labor with their hands a portion 
of the time, and support themselves in whole or part. 

43. What success has attended the establishment of Manual- 

Labor Schools? 

They have generally proved unsuccessful. 

44. What are Polytechnic Schools? 

Schools in which the various Sciences and their practical 
applications are taught. 





HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 






OI 


45- 
4 6. 


What are Real Schools? 
A kind of High Schools in Germany 
utilitarian in their aim. 

What was the Monitorial System? 


which are 


prac 


tica 


or 



A system of mutual instruction conducted on the principle 
of selecting pupils, called monitors, to instruct other 
pupils. 

47. Why -was the Monitorial System sometimes called the 

Madras System? 
Because it was introduced into England by Andrew Bell 
from Madras, India. 

48. Who ititroducedthe Monitorial System in the United States? 
Joseph Lancaster, an English educator, about 1818; it is, 

therefore, sometimes called the Lancasterian System. 

49. What are the various names given to Schools for the special 

training of teachers? 
Normal Schools, Teachers' Seminaries, and Training 
Schools. 

50. Where are they called Normal Schools? 

In the United States, France, Great Britain, Italy, Spain, 
and the French Cantons of Switzerland. 

51. Where are they called Teachers' 1 Seminaries? 

In Germany, Russia, Finland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, 
and the German Cantons of Switzerland. 

52. Where are they called Training Schools? 
In Austria and the Netherlands. 

53. What country first adopted and enforced the special train- 

ing of Teachers? 
Prussia. 

54. Where and when was the first public. Normal School in the 

United States established? 
At Lexington. Mass., July 3, 1839; it was afterwards re- 
moved to Framingham, "Mass. 

55. Who was the first teacher in this Normal School? 
Cyrus Peirce, who commenced with three pupils. 

56. What is the difference between a Normal School and a 

Teachers' Institute? 
A Normal School is a permanent school for the training of 



62 HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 

touchers; a Teachers' Institute is an assemblage of teachers 
called temporarily together for professional instruction. 

57. How are the expenses of Teachers' Institutes defrayed? 
In some cases by State Funds; in others by County Funds; 

in others by contributions from the teachers; in others by 
a portion or all of the fees paid at examinations for 
Teachers' Certificates. 

58. How did Teachers'' Institutes originate? 

In private associated undertakings of teachers and friends 
of education; but now they are encouraged in many States 
by law. 

59. When was the term Teachers' Institute first applied? 

'A Teachers' Institute (then first so named) was held in 1843 
by J. S. Denman, School Superintendent of Tompkins 
County, N. Y. This lasted two weeks, and was a revela- 
tion of the new agent in school improvement." — James 
H. Smart. 

60. When tvere the first County Teachers' Institutes held west 

of the Allegheny Mountains? 
County Teachers' Institutes began to be held in Ohio and 
Michigan about 1845. 

61. What is the difference between a Teachers' Institute and 

a Teachers' Association? 
" Teachers' Institutes are Teachers' Associations with pro- 
tracted sessions." — Ira May hew. 

62. What should be the great object of Teachers' Institutes? 
To impart a knowledge of the principles and methods of 

teaching and school management. 

63. Who rvas Horace Mann? 

One of the most celebrated of American educationists, born 
in Massachusetts in 1796, died in Ohio 1859. 

64. What educational positions did Horace Mann fill? 

Tutor in Brown University, Secretary of the Massachusetts 
State Board of Education, and President of Antioch 
College. 

65. What -was the great work of Horace Mann in Education t 
The reformation and improvement of the Common Schools 

of Massachusetts and the establishment of Normal Schools. 



IUSTORT OF EDUCATION. 63 

66. What were his principal writing's on Education? 

His twelve annual reports as Secretary of the Massachusetts 
Board of Education, and his Lectures on Education. 

67. What high claim did he make as to the effect of the proper 

professional training of Teachers in increasing their 
efficiency} 
That pupils might learn ten times as much as they did, if the 
Teachers had the requisite knowledge, skill and training. 

68. Name the principal educational reformers treated of by R. 

H. S^jiick in his work on "Educational Reformers". 
Comenius, Locke, Rousseau, Basedow, Pestalozzi, Jacotct, 
and Herbert Spencer. 

69. What were the chief demands of the Educational Reformers ? 
That the study of things should precede or be united with 

the study of words; that knowledge should be communi- 
cated, whenever possible, bv appeals to the senses; that a 
new method of teaching should be adopted, framed ac- 
cording to nature. 

70. Who was Joseph Payne!' 

A noted English educator of this century, and the first 
Professor of Education in the College of Preceptors at 
London, England. 

71. What is the title of Joseph Payne's principal work on 

Education? 
Lectures on Education. 

72. What are some of the fundamental principles ?ipon which 

all modern Educators agree? 
All true education is a growth. The educator should nol 
so much instill as develop and call out. Learning should 
be pleasurable. 

73. What zvere the principal branches taught in the Common 

Schools of America in the last cehturyf 
Reading, Spelling, Writing, and Arithmetic. 

74. When were slates introduced into the Schools? 

" Before the Revolution, and for some time after, no slates 
were used in the Common Schools; all writing and the 
operations in Arithmetic were on paper. The teacher 
wrote the copies and gave the sums in Arithmetic, few or 
none of the pupils having any books as a guide." — Noah 
Webster. 



64 HISTORY- OF EDUCATION. 

715. When was English Grammar introduced into the Common 
Schools f 
Not till after the publication of Lindley Murray's Grammar, 
in 1795. From an occasional study it gradually became a 
regular one. 

76. When was Geography introduced into the Common Schools} 
Jedediah Morse published, in 1784, the first text-book on 

Geography in this country, but nearly forty years elapsed 
before it became a common study in school. 

77. What great defect was there in the earliest efforts to teach 

Geography f 

The eye was not made the chief medium of instruction; the 
text-book contained few or no maps, and maps were not 
required to be studied. 

78. What was the chief aim of the Schools instituted by Luther, 

and of the Parish School of England? 
To enable the people to read the Bible and the Psalm book. 

79. What is the order in which the common school studies 

have been introduced? 

(1) Reading and Spelling, (2) Writing, (3) Arithmetic, (4) 
English Grammar, (5) Geography without maps, (6) Geog- 
raphy with maps, (7) U. S. History, (S) Physiology. 

80. What is meant by "real" instruction in the German Schools? 
Instruction in the knowledge of nature and the external 

world, including the elements of the sciences and arts of 
life, Geography, and History. 

81. What were the first books for reading used in the schools of 

this country? 
The Bible or New Testament, and the Psalter. 

52. What xvcre the first books published in this country es- 

pecially designed for learners in Reading? 
Noah Webster's Spelling Book, which contained some read- 
ing lessons, published in 1783, and the same author's " Third 
Part", consisting of reading selections, published in 1784. 

53. Why was Webster's Reader called his " Third Part"? 
Noah Webster published a Grammatical Institute of the 

English Language in three parts, the first being a Spelling 
Book, the second a Grammar, and the third a Reader. 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 65 

84. What fact can be stated showing the great popularity of 

Webster's Spelling Book? 
The author supported his family from the sale of the bopk 
while preparing his Dictionary, although he received less 
than one cent on each copy. 

85. What was the "Horn-Book "J 

A single page pasted on a board and covered with a thin 
plate of transparent horn, used to teach the alphabet. 
Besides the alphabet in small letters and capitals, it some- 
times contained the numerals and the Lord's Prayer. 

86. When and by whom was the Decimal Point introduced? 

In 1602, by Lord John Napier, an English mathematician. 

87. Who was prominent in introducing the study of Physical 

Geography in the United States? 
Prof. Arnold Guyot. 

88. Who was Guyot? 

A Scientist, distinguished particularly in the department of 
Physical Geography; born in Switzerland, afterwards 
Professor of Physical Geography at Princeton College. 

89. Name some of Prof. Guyot '.? works. 

" Earth and Man", and a geographical series, with a prelimi- 
nary section on " Geographical Teaching". 

90. How and when was the study of Metital Arithmetic 

introduced? 
By the publication of Colburn's Mental Arithmetic in 182 1. 

91. Who was Colburn? 

Warren Colburn, author of the first text-book on Mental 
Arithmetic, was a Massachusetts mathematician and 
teacher, born in 1793, died in 1S33. 

92. What was the popularity of Colburn 's Mental Arithmetic? 
Its sale was enormous, at one time reaching 100,000 copies 

annually in the United States, and 50,000 in Great Britain. 

93. Name a deceased American Professor distinguished as a 

Teacher of Natural Science. 
Louis Agassiz. 

94. Who zvas Louis Agassiz? 

A native of Switzerland, who became an eminent Natural- 
ist and Teacher in Massachusetts. He died at Cambridge, 
Mass., in 1873, a g e d 66 years. 

5 



66 HIS TORT OF EDUCATION. 

95. In what particular department of Natural Science was 

Louis Agassi z most famous'-' 
Ichthyology. 

96. What celebrated school rvas established at Penikese Island} 
The Anderson School of Natural History, under the direc- 
tion of Agassiz. 

97. What important Cyclopedia of Education has been pub- 

lished in this country f 
"The Cyclopedia of Education",, edited by Henry Kiddle 
and Alexander J. Schem, New York, 1877. A book of 
874 pages. Price, $4.00. A valuable work. 

98. What is the most recent letter of the English Alphabet? 
W, which was added during the Middle Ages. 

99. What is the origin of the name of Wf 

It was formed by doubling V, which was formerly called 
U, hence the name. 

100. What is the origin of the word Alphabet? 

It is derived from the first two letters of the Greek Alpha- 
bet, alpha, beta. 

101. Give a brief history of the English Alphabet. 

The English obtained their letters from the Romans; the 
Romans from the Greeks; the Greeks from the Phoeni- 
cians; the Phoenicians used the same Alphabet as many of 
the old Semitic Nations, and its real origin is unknown. 

102. When and by whom xvere the Numeral Figures brought 

into Europe? 
The Arabian Moors or Saracens introduced them into 
Spain in 991 ; for this reason they are called Arabic Figures. 

103. What is the origin of the Arabic Figures? 

They were derived from Hindoostan and were originally 
the initial letters of the Sanskrit words for one, two, 
three, etc., but have undergone considerable changes 
in form. 

104. What is the origin of the Cipher? 

It is the most recent of the numeral figures, and was origi- 
nally a dot used as a mere arbitrary sign to mark place 
or local value. 



TEACHING READING. 67 



Teaching Reading. 



1. Name, the principal methods of teaching beginners to read. 
(1) The alphabet method, (2) the word method, (3) the 

phonic method, (4) a combination of these methods. 

2. What is the Alphabet Method? 

It is teaching the names of the letters first. 

3. What is the worst form of the Alphabet Method? 

That of teaching the names of all the letters before any of 
their combinations into words. 

4. Why is the Alphabet Method unphilosophical? 

Because the names of the letters are meaningless to the child. 

5. What is the Word Method.'' 

A method of teaching beginners to read by the pupil learning 
to recognize and pronounce words before learning the 
names of the letters. 

6. What is the Webb Method? 
Another name for the word method. 

7. What argument in favor of the Word Method? 
That pupils begin with the names of familiar objects. 

8. What is the Phonic Method? 

A method by which the sounds of the letters are first taught, 
and their common names afterward. 

9. What is the Combination Method of teaching beginners to 

read? 
A method which proposes to combine the advantages of all 
methods. 

10. What is the Leigh Method? 
One form of the phonic method. 

11. What may be said of all these methods? 

By any of them children may be taught to read; a good 
teacher may be successful with any of them, and a poor 
teacher fail with the best method. 



68 TEACHING READING. 

12. How long should the first lessons in reading bef 
Not more than ten minutes. 

13. What method is never to be folloxvedf 

That of teaching the names of all the letters before any 
words are learned. 

14. Hotv should Punctuation be taught to beginners? 

The names and uses of the marks are to be taught grad- 
ually; do not dwell simply on their names. 

15. What objections are there to pupils " printing"" names on 

their slates ? 
It is said to spoil their handwriting. 

16. What advantages result from "printing" on slates? 

It gives little children something to do, and thus keeps them 
quiet. 

17. What is the Script Method rvith beginners? 

In it the printed letters are not taught at first, but the read- 
ing of written words or characters alone is practiced. 

18. Hotv have certain " new methods" completely reversed the 

old order of studies? 
The traditional order of studies, the letters, spelling, read- 
ing, writing, has been reversed; a new order is writing, 
reading, spelling. 

19. Give all the names that have been applied to the different 

methods of teaching reading to beginners. 
The A, B, C, or alphabet method; word method; object 
method; phonic method; phonetic method; phonotypic 
method; look-and-say method; word -building method; 
sentence method; drawing method; script method; Leigh 
method; Webb method. 

20. Into what three methods may all these be resolved? 
Letter, Word, and Phonic Methods. 

21. What threefold work is to be performed in learning to read? 
Work by the eye, by the mind, and by the voice. 

22. What is the work of each? 

The eye in forming pictures of the words, the mind in 
taking cognizance of the meaning of the words, and the 
voice in giving utterance. 



TEACHING READING. 69 

23. What is the mechanical part of reading? 

Learning to call the words by sight, and pronouncing them 
correctly. 

24. What is the logical part of reading? 

It deals with the thoughts and meanings of the reading 
lesson. 

25. What is the esthetic part of reading? 

It deals with the sentiments and their beautiful expression. 

26. Should the pupil be interrupted while reading to correct an 

error? 
No; it interferes with expression. The correction should 
be made at the end of the paragraph. 

27. Name some points which should receive careful attention in 

every reading exercise. 
(1) Pronunciation, (2) intonation, (3) expression, (4) the 
meaning, (5) facility. 

28. What is one of the most common faults of intonation in 

reading? 
A high and unnatural monotone. 

29. What is one of the principal causes of an unnatural tone 

in reading? 
The reading lessons are beyond the comprehension of the 
pupils. 

30. Name another evil resulting from reading what is not 

understood. 
"To allow a child to read what he cannot at least partially 
comprehend is to encourage him to read without thought, 
which is the great hinderance to all literary and scientific 
progress." — Dr. Thomas Hill. 

31. Should pupils be taught to recite the definitions of punctu- 

ation marks? 
No; it is a waste of time. 

32. What is to be said of teaching pupils to stop u long enough 

to count one'\ "izvo", etc.? 
It is an absurd practice. 
^^. Give an example of the proper use of commas where no 
pause should be made. 
"No, sir", "Thank you, sir". 



7 o TEACHING READING. 

34. Should young pupils be taught "to mind the pauses" ? 
They should be taught to read naturally, and give the sense ; 

in doing this they will make proper pauses. 

35. Hotv can pupils be led to read understandingly? 

By having them to state the story in their own language, 
and by interesting them in the subject. 

36. What is the object of having a pupil read a sentence back- 

zvard? 
To be certain that he can call the words at sight. 

37. How is the art of oral reading to be taught; by rules, by 

lectures, or by drills? 
By drills. 

38. What is to be said of rules for in/lection, emphasis, tone, etc.? 
They are of doubtful utility. 

39. What other purpose than that of reading correctly should 

the reading lessons serve? 
To confirm a habit of reading good literature. 

40. How may a reading lesson serve as a valuable language 



I: 



ssom 



By enlarging the pupil's vocabulary; by improving his lan- 
guage; by learning critically the meaning and derivation 
of words. 

41. How may supplementary reading exercises be usefully 

carried on? 
By having pupils on one day in the week bring choice extracts 
from books, magazines, and papers, and read them in class. 

42. What is the main object of learning to read? 

Not to be able to read aloud well, but to have mastery over 
the printed page, through which the thoughts there ex- 
pressed may be obtained. 

43. How do most me?i become intelligent? 

By silent reading; reading aloud to others is exceptional. 

44. Hotv can you cultivate a taste for home reading in your 

pupils? 

By directing their attention to good and entertaining books 
which are accessible to them, and interesting them in the 
subjects treated of. 



TEACHING READING. 71 

45. What is the most important part of a common school edu- 

cation? 
The ability to read and write, and a taste for reading good 
literature. 

46. Hotu can this be illustrated? 

By the fact that men like Horace Greeley, with little school 
education, have, by extensive reading, become eminent and 
useful men. 

47. What -will give the teacher assistance in teaching reading, 

and make the task a delightful one? 
Extensive reading on his* part, and especially an acquaint- 
ance with the author of the reading lesson. 

48. What kind of reading do children most delight in? 
Narratives, adventures, travels, and biographies. 

49. Is Robinson Crusoe a good book for children? 
Yes; every child should be encouraged to read it. 

50. What kind of reading is pernicious? 

Sensational novels, and details of murders and crimes, 
whether in dime novels or daily newspapers. 

51. Hozv many times a day should a class in reading recite? 
This will depend on the number of classes in the school. 

The First, Second, and Third Readers should have two 
recitations, and more if time will permit. 

52. Why should not classes in the higher readers have as fre- 

quent lessons as those in the lower? 
Because they have more studies. 

53. State the main objects of reading exercises. 

The true teacher will have no particular set or routine 
method. His main object should be to secure distinct 
articulation; cultivate natural tones and delivery; require 
pupils to take a proper position; cultivate their powers of 
perception and language, by questions on the subject mat- 
ter of the lesson; teach the use of principal punctuation 
marks; exercise the class in spelling, pronouncing and 
defining words of the lesson. 



1- 



TEACHING SPELLING. 



Teaching Spelling. 



i. Hoxv did Horace Mann characterize the Spelling- Book? 
" The spelling-book is a most artful and elaborate contrivance 
by which words are separated from their meanings so that 
the words can be transferred into the mind of the pupil 
without permitting any glimmer of their meanings to 
accompany them." 

2. What words should a pupil be first taught to spell? 
Words which belong to his own vocabulary. 

3. How many -words belong to the vocabulary of a little child 

five years old? 
About 300. 

4. Hotu many words in the vocabulary of the average man? 
About 6,000. 

5. How many words in our large Unabridged Dictionaries? 
Over 100,000. 

6. How many words are there in the common Spelling- Book? 
From 10,000 to 15,000. 

7. What are the arguments against drilling pupils i?i spelling 

all the words in the Spelling- Book? 
The words are then separated from their meanings; many of 
them are words which pupils do not use. 
S. In -cvhat three ways can rue learn to spell? 
By spelling orally; by reading; by writing. 

9. To which organ, the ear or the eye, should we most appeal in 

spelling? 
To the eye. 

10. Why should xve appeal to the eye in fixing spelling? 
Because it is in writing that we most need correct spelling, 

and oral spelling will not save us from mistakes in writ- 
ing; the eye is the stronger sense to retain impressions. 



TEACHING SPELLING. 73 

11. Should Oral Spelling be abandoned? 
Not entirely. 

12. What objections are there to confining spelling exercises 

to -writing altogether? 
It becomes monotonous; the opportunities for getting as- 
sistance are increased; it fails to teach correct articulation. 

13. What good results may be obtained by Oral Spelling? 
Good articulation, correct pronunciation and syllabification. 

14. What should be the chief method of spelling? 
By writing. 

15. Besides the correct combination of letters, what else should 

be learned in the spelling exercises? 
Capitalization, pronunciation, diacritical marks, definitions, 
prefixes, suffixes, use of italics, etc. 

16. When words are writteti in columns in spelling exercises 

should each begin zvith a capital? 
No; only those which require capitals should thus be written. 

17. Name some of the kinds of proper names which should 

be introduced into spelling exercises. 
The more common Christian names, and some biographical 
and geographical names. 

18. How can the proper use of the Apostrophe to mark the 

possessive be taught in the spelling-lesson? 
By giving the possessive forms of many words to write, 
both singular and plural, and requiring the apostrophe to 
be correctly used. 

19. Name four uses of the Hyphen. 

(1) To join the parts of a compound word, (2) to join the 
words united together as an adjective or otherwise tem- 
porarily compounded, (3) to mark the division of a word 
at Hie end of a line, (4) to syllabify words. 

20. Which of these uses should be first taught? 
The first and third. 

21. What is the natural and quickest way of learning to spell? 
By writing words until they can be written automatically. 

22. What is meant by zvriting xuords automatically? 
Writing them without stopping to think. 



74 



TEACHING SPELLING. 



23. Why should the pupil be early taught to write words in 

sentences? 
Becavise sentences are the forms of thought expression, and 
the stimulus of the thought enables the child to recall the 
word-forms in writing, just as it does in reading. 

24. What faculties of the mind are chiefly employed in spelling? 
Perception and memory. 

25. What aid to the Memory is derived in spelling from 

writing? 
The habitual movements of the hand aid the memory. 

26. In what way is ti?ne economized in teaching spelling by 

writing? 
A whole class can exercise on the same words at the same 
time. 

27. Should the Spelling-Book be wholly banished from our 

schools? 
It seems impossible to do so in the Common Schools. 

28. What is probably the best plan of teaching Spellitig? 

By a judicious combination of oral spelling, writing test 
words, and writing sentences. 

29. Upon what words should pupils be mostly drilled? 
Upon the words they misspell. 

30. In Oral Spelling should the syllables be pronounced? 
Good teachers differ in their practice on this point. 

31. What has been urged against the pronunciation of syllables? 
That it takes up time, is tedious and monotonous. 

32. What has been argued in favor of pronouncing the syllables? 
That it is a kind of word analysis, and that the whole word 

is thus more easily pronounced. 

33. In what way has the pronunciation of syllables been carried 

to an extreme? 
In going back and pronouncing all the preceding syllables 
after spelling each syllable. 

34. What arc Homophonous Words? 
Words having the same sound. 

35. What is a permanent Compound Word? 
One whose parts are united without a hyphen. 



TEACHING SPELLING. 75 

36. What is a temporary Compound Word? 
One whose parts are united with a hyphen. 

37. What is Phonetic Spelling? 

The separation of a word into its elementary sounds. 

38. Ho~v many elementary sounds in the English language? 
Forty -one. 

39. What letters could be dispensed with in English? 
c, q, and x. 

40. By what letters may these sounds be represented? 
c by k or s ; q by kiv ; x by ks or gz. 

41. What are the advantages of Phonetic Exercises? 

The vocal organs are trained to clearness and correctness of 
enunciation, and the ear is cultivated to readily distinguish 
between sounds. 

42. What is to be said of rules for Spelling? 

Some of them are of use, but English Spelling is so irregu- 
lar that only by practice for years can any one become a 
good speller. 

43. What is to be said of Spelling Matches or bees? 

They have sometimes proved to be beneficial, but the time 
given to them could generally be better employed by 
a reading club, or a literary society. 

44. In what -way may pupils be led to use the Dictionary in 

learning Orthography? 
In compositions or other wi'itten exercises examined by the 
teacher the misspelled words may be marked by drawing 
a circle around them, and the pupils may be required to 
find the correct spelling from the Dictionary, and to 
rewrite the words, the teacher examining the rewritten 
words. 

45. Give a method of teaching Spelling to advanced classes 

by " trial lessons". 
Let the teacher dictate a selected list of words to the class, 
and all the pupils write them on their slates. Let each 
pupil then make out a list of the words he has misspelled; 
these only need be studied for the next lesson, and the 
pupil should be drilled upon them until he can spell them 
correctly, both orally and in writing. 



7 6 TEACHING SPELLING. 

46. What are the advantages of having pupils study only the 

words they misspell? 

The pupil's energy is thus saved, and directed to the points 
where it is most needed. 

47. Describe some miscellaneous exercises in spelling for 

teaching the orthography of common things. 
Let pupils write a list of all objects in the school-room, or 
of all trees near the school-house, or all the objects com- 
monly found in a grocery, hardware, dry-goods, or other 
store. 

48. How may pupils learn to spell Commercial terms? 

Let the teacher, from the commercial columns or market 
reports of a newspaper, dictate to older classes the terms 
used in commercial circles and on stock exchange, and have 
the pupils write them, using the common abbreviations. 

49. Give a list of some of the most important abbreviations 

which pupils should be taught to write correctly. 
Gov., Esq., inst, A. M., P. M., doz., Hon., pro. tern., Messrs., 
Mr., Mrs., the abbreviations for the names of the States, etc. 

50. How may pupils be taught to use abbreviations correctly? 
They should write sentences containing at least one of the 

abbreviations, carefully capitalizing only such as require 
capital letters. 

51. Name several different methods of teaching Spell 'ing. 
Oral spelling in classes; oral spelling of words in reading 

lesson; writing on blackboard; writing on slates; writing on 
paper with pen and with pencil; writing lists of text- 
books; writing sentences dictated by teacher; writing 
original sentences. 

52. How should the use of Diacritical Marks be leartied? 
Gradually, as the marks occur in reading and spelling lessons. 

53. What rules for Spelling should be taught? 

" There are very few rules for spelling that are of any prac- 
tical value. We know of none except these three: 
First — Final silent e is omittted on taking a suffix begin- 
ning with a vowel. Second — Final y, preceded by a con- 
sonant, is changed to i on taking any suffix which does not 
begin with i. Third — Monosyllables, and words accented 
on the last syllable, ending in a single consonant, preceded 



TEACHING ARITHMETIC. 77 

by a single vowel, double the final consonant on taking a 
suffix beginning with a vowel. The exceptions to these 
rules are very few; these exceptions should be carefully 
learned." — Heivetfs Pedagogy. 

Give some of the most important directions to be observed 

in Spelling Exercises. 
"Pronounce each word distinctly, and but once. Require 

the writing to be neat and plain. Have missed words 

re-written at each lesson. Review misspelled words daily. 

Keep a list of missed words, and use them at reviews." 

— Prof. J. A. Cooper. 



Teaching Arithmetic. 



What is the Grube Method? 

A method of instruction in Primary Arithmetic introduced 

into Germany by A. W. Grube many years ago, and since 
adopted into many schools in this country. 
What is the distinguishing feature of Grube 's Method? 
Instead of teaching addition, subtraction, multiplication, and 

division in their regular order, it takes up each number, 

beginning with 1, and teaches the child to perform all the 

operations possible within the limits of that number before 

passing to the next number. 
Illustrate the Grube Method by the figure 2. 
The child is taught to perform all the operations of addition, 

subtraction, multiplication, and division up to the number 

2, before proceeding to 3. 
What, according to Grube, is meant by knowing a number? 
It means not only to know the number ot units in the number, 

but also its relations to all the numbers contained in it. 
Hozv long did Grube think should be spe?it 071 the numbers 

from 1 to 10? 

He says: " In the way I want it treated, one year is not too 
long". 



78 TEACHING ARITHMETIC. 

6. What criticism may be made on Grube's Method? 

"There is something to be learned from it, but it certainly 
does not deserve to be vised as an exclusive method of 
teaching the elements of numbers. Grube advises a year 
to be given to exercises of which the results shall not exceed 
10. Bright children will break the bounds of such limited 
restrictions. Children can be taught in the first year of 
school life to count ioo, first by ones, then by tens, then by 
fives, then by twos, then by fours, and so on. We think it 
worthy of experiment to try counting by twenties, either 
before or after counting by fives." — W. D. Henkle. 

7. Hoiv far may pupils be taught to count the first year? 
As far as 100, whether Grube's method is followed or not. 

8. Should pupils be taught to read and write numbers in the 

primary room? 
They may be taught the first year to read and write numbers 
as far as 25. 

9. Why should frequent use of objects be made in teaching 

numbers to young pupils? 
Children gain ideas more rapidly and more clearly by per- 
ception than by reflection. 

10. Should Mental and Written Arithmetic be taught as sepa- 

rate studies? 
The opinion of most educators now is that they should be 
taught as one study. 

11. Why should there be a unification of Mental and Written 

Arithmetic? 
"There is but one Science of Arithmetic, and every thing 
that tends to produce the impression in the pupil's mind 
that there are two species, the one intellectual and the 
other mechanical, is an obstacle to his true progress." 
— Edward Olney. 

12. With what hind of examples should the pupil begin? 
Examples containing only small numbers, and referring to 

sensible objects, so that the pupil can retain them in his 
mind, and reason upon them. 

13. Hoxv should difficult problems be ititroduced? 
Gradually, so that the pupil will meet with no greater diffi- 
culty than he is competent to overcome. 



TEACHING ARITHMETIC. 79 

Give Warren Colburn's views about rules in Arithmetic. 
Instead of the pupil studying rules in the book he should 

make his own rules. 
Which should be taught first, Long Division or Short 

Division? 
Many teachers think Long Division should be taught first, 

as it is easier. 

16. Why is Long Division easier? 

Because every step can be put in figures, while Short Divi- 
sion is a contracted method, with most of the work to be 
done mentally. 

17. Which should be taught first, the process of writing num- 

bers or the rule of notation? 
The process of writing numbers. 

18. Give the reason. 

The rule of notation is simply the plan of procedure, and 
should be taught in and through the process. 

19. Hoiv should the tables of zveights and measures be taught? 
There should be tin and wooden measures in the school- 
room, and the pupils should vise them practically; — espec- 
ially should there be a yard measure, divided into feet 
and inches. 

20. What -was the great defect of old text-books on Arithmetic? 
They were simply books of definitions, rules, and examples. 

21. What great improvement in modern Text-Boohs? 

They attempt to present the subject in such a way that the 
pupil will thoroughly understand the reasons of every 
process. 

22. Is there any useful distinction bet-ween Numeration and 

Notation? 
" We have long considered that the distinction usually made 
between numeration and notation is useless." — W. D. 
Hejikle. 

23. What care should be exercised in teaching the xvriting of 

numbers? 
That the figures are neatly and correctly made. 

24. What useful exercise in teaching pupils to read and write 

numbers readily? 
They should be drilled to tell promptly how many figures 
are required to express numbers up to billions. 



8o TEACHING ARITHMETIC. 

25. What kind of questions should be asked in this drill? 
How many figures to express tens? One million? 14,719? 

50,001? etc. 

26. What distinction may be made between Examples and 

Problems? 
Examples are solved to e*xplain a method; problems are 
questions requiring an operation for their solution. 

27. What various opinions concerning Rules? 

Some teachers hold that rules should be carefully mem- 
orized; others that they should be given in the language 
of the pupil, and others that they should be omitted from 
the text-book. 

28. What is the argument against Arithmetical Rules? 

Rules without principles are soon forgotten, while if the 
principles are well understood, rules are useless. 

29. If rules are memorized, what maxim should be kept in view? 
" Only that which is understood should be committed to 

memory." 

30. Hoxv much of Factors and Factoring should be learned? 
"The pupil should not only learn his multiplication table 

completely, but he should learn the prime factors of all 
numbers as high as 100, and he should learn the squares as 
far as the the square of 25 at least." — E. C. Hewctt. 

31. What are the txvo leading objects to be kept in view in the 

study of an Arithmetical subject? 
(0 The mastery of the rationale, (2) the acquisition of 

facility and accuracy in the process. 
3 J. Should all the subjects treated i?i the text-book be studied 

with equal care and thoroughness? 
No; some are much more important than others. 

33. What should be kept in view in arranging the order of 

subjects in Arithmetic? 
That the more important practical subjects be reached before 
the majority leave the Common School. 

34. Name some of the most important topics in Arithmetic. 
The fundamental rules, Common and Decimal Fractions, 

Federal Money, some of the Denominate numbers, Per- 
centage, and Proportion; to these should be added, if time 
permits, Square and Cube Root, and something of Men- 
suration. 



TEACHING ARITHMETIC. 81 

35. Name some of the less important topics. 

Greatest Common Divisor, Least Common Multiple, Circu- 
lating Decimals, and Duodecimals. 

36. Why are these topics of minor importance? 

Because thej are seldom or never used in practical business 
operations. 

37. What is fundamentally requisite in making- good Arithme- 

ticians 'f 

Facility, celerity, and accuracy in the four fundamental rules. 

38. Hozv is this to be acquired? 

By patient and long-continued drill in both mental and 
written operations. 

39. Should pupils be early taught in the Common Schools short 

methods in the four fundamental rules? 
Yes. 

40. Give the reason. 

Because the rapid methods of calculating should become 
habitual in early life 

41. Why should pupils be fraught to subtract with the Subtra- 

hend either over or under the Minuend? 

Because in practical calculations it is often convenient to 
subtract with the numbers in either portion. 

42. What is to be said of the position of the Multiplier? 

Pupils should be taught to multiply with the multiplier 
either under, over or at one side of the multiplicand. 

43. If you have a number containing twenty figures, and desire 

to multiply by a number which can be separated into two 
factors, how ca?i you save one row of at least twenty 
figures a?id the addition? 
By multiplying by one factor and the product by the other 
factor. 

44. What is to be said of the use of the methods of u Lightning 

Calculators'''' in schools? 
Many of them can be taught to good advantage in our 
schools, and will become habitual methods with the 
learners. 

6 



82 TEACHING ARITHMETIC. 

45. Should a pupil ever be permitted to pass over a topic in 

Arithmetic without understanding it? 
The aim of the teacher should be to have every step thor- 
oughly comprehended, but there are some topics which can- 
not be thoroughly understood the first time they are studied. 

46. What is the effect of the study of Algebra and Geometry 

on the pupiVs knowledge of Arithmetic? 
If half of the last year devoted to Arithmetic were devoted 
to Algebra or Geometry, and Arithmetic be afterwards 
reviewed, the pupils would know more of Arithmetic 
than by the present plan. 

47. Which should be studied first, Higher Arithmetic, or 

A Igebra ? 
Algebra. 

48. Why should Algebra be studied before Higher Arithmetic? 
Because it is easier, and more useful. 

49. Should Higher Arithmetic be studied i?i the Common 

Schools? 
No; if instruction in advanced Mathematics is to be given 
in the Common Schools, both Algebra and Elementary 
Geometry should be studied before the Higher Arithmetic. 

50. Which should be taught first in Arithmetic, processes, or 

reasons for the processes? 
"In beginning the use of figures in computation, let the 
child first master the process thoroughly; the reasons 
may come later; — first, how; then, why." — E. C. Hewett. 

51. How can the pupil be taught Accuracy in Arithmetical 

computations? 
" He should be taught to be satisfied with nothing short of 
accuracy; if he has made a mistake in his work, that 
work should not be erased till the mistake has been 
found and corrected." — lb. 

52 . Give some important directions for A rithmetic Recitations. 
" Have much blackboard work. Aim at accuracy first, rapid- 
ity next. Aim to secure intense mental action. Give 
original examples as tests. Require definite and logical 
explanation and analysis. Let pupils acquire ability to per- 
form the operation before drilling on rules and explana- 
tions."— Prof. J. A. Cooper. 



TEACHING GRAMMAR. S3 



Teaching Grammar, 



1. Who was it, called the English Language "the grammar- 

less tongue''''? 
Richard Grant White. 

2. What prediction did this author make concerning the study 

of Grammar? 
" That the time is coming when there will be no more thought 
of teaching an English-speaking boy the Grammar of his 
mother tongue than of teaching him Astrology." 

3. What reasons may be given for the study of English 

Grammar? 
It is an excellent mental discipline, and, rightly taught, puts 
the student in possession of many important facts and 
principles concerning the language. 

4. The opponents of the study of Grammar say that ive learn 

to speak and write correctly only by familiarity with good 
langtiage ; how is this anszvered? 
The ear alone is not always a guide to correct English. There 
are some errors that a knowledge of Grammar alone will 
enable us to detect. 

5. At zvhat age should the study of Technical Grammar be 

commenced? 
Generally not before the age of ten years. 

6. Which should come firsts a knoxvledge of Grammar or of 

Langtiage? 
A knowledge of language, and no pupil should be exercised in 
parsing or analyzing a sentence beyond his comprehension. 

7. With what Part of Speech is it best to begin in Grammar? 
The noun. 

8. Why is the Noun easiest of comprehension? 
Because the names of objects and things are nouns. 



84 TEACHING GRAMMAR. 



9. Give a plan for commencing the study of the Noun. 

Call upon a class for names of things; write them on the 
blackboard; teach that these name words are nouns; have 
pupils hunt for nouns in reading lesson, etc. 

10. What would be the second step i?i the study of the Noun? 
Arrange the nouns selected by the class into two classes, 

common and proper, and lead the pupils to distinguish 
the difference. 

11. How should the study of the Verb be commenced? 

By leading pupils to select out words which express action; 
next, those which express being or state; afterwards teach- 
ing them that these words are verbs. 

12. Teaching pupils first the definition of a Noun, and next 

to find words corresponding to the definition, violates 
what maxim? 
The maxim that we should proceed from the concrete to the 
abstract, and from the known to the unknown. 

13. How can you teach pupils clear ideas of what is a sentence? 
Lead them to see from examples that collections of words 

which assert something are sentences. Have them form 
sentences. Next lead them to distinguish between telling 
or declarative sentences, asking or interrogative sentences, 
and commanding or imperative sentences. 

14. Why are clear and correct ideas of what constitutes a sen- 

tence of essential importance in Grammatical teaching? 
Grammar is distinctively the science of the sentence. 

15. What are the two essential parts of a sentence? 
The subject and the predicate. 

16. Of what benefit are diagrams in analysis? 

They are useful in picturing to the eye the relations of the 
words, phrases, and clauses of the sentence. 

17. What caution should be observed in the use of diagrams? 
They should not surfeit the mind with pictures of lines and 

braces; they should be auxiliary to the mind's operations, 
and not supersede them. 

18. What is more important than Grammar in the formation 

of correct language? 
Correct language on the part of the teacher, and careful cor- 
rection of errors and faults of expression of the pupils. 



TEACHING GRAMMAR. 85 

19. Name some of the more common errors of speech among 

pupils. 
The use of done for did, seen for sarv, and incorrect uses of 
the puzzling verbs lie and lay, sit and set. 

20. What is the only philosophical tvay to learn to speak and 

xvrite correctly? 
" Let the child learn to talk by talking, to write by writing, 
and to compose by composing. 

21. What should constantly go xvith all Grammar instruction? 
Sentence-making, and correction of errors in speech and 

writing. 

22. What are Language Lessons? 

Lessons intended to enlarge the pupils' knowledge of lan- 
guage, and to teach them to speak and write correctly. 

23. What kind of language culture should a teacher aim to give 

his pupils outside of the study of Grammar? 
Every recitation should be made an exercise in language. 

24. Hozv did Pestalozzi regard object lessons? 

Merely as a proper way of teaching the use of language. 

25. Why should pupils always be required to recite in good 

language? 
That they may form the habit of using good language. 

26. If a pupil always heard good language, and read only good 

language, zvould he always speak and write gram- 
matically? 
His language would generally be correct, but there arc 
many nice points of construction in which the ear and 
memory will not serve as a guide, and in which an 
acquaintance with the grammatical construction of the 
language is essential. 

27. How are the meanings of new words best acquired? 
In connection with words already known. 

28. Should definitions and rules in Grammar be memorized? 
If the teacher requires rules and definitions to be given they 

will generally be repeated in the words of the book; it 
is better for the pupil to give them in his own language. 

29. What reason has been given for omitting rules entirely 

in Grammar? 
They are so liable to be used mechanically. 



86 TEACHING GRAMMAR. 

30. What is grammatical Etymology? 

Its purpose is to explain the origin of all the inflections. 

31. What is Comparative Philology? 

It is the study of a language as a member of a great 
family of languages. 

32. What important rule may be given concerning the proper 

method of presenting rules and definitions? 
Never define a term or announce a rule or principle without 
first preparing the mind of the pupil to grasp and com- 
prehend it. 

33. Should the " Cautions" and "Observations" found in most 

Grammars be committed to memory? 
They should not, but they should be frequently referred 
to in the class exercises, and thoroughly understood. 

34.. What exercises in Abridgment may be given? 

Pupils may be exercised in changing complex sentences 
to simple ones by abridging their subordinate clauses; 
also in writing sentences containing abridged proposi- 
tions. 

35. What exercises in Ellipsis may be given? 

Let the pupils supply the ellipses in sentences from reading 
lessons;" and elliptical sentences may be written on the 
blackboard and expanded. 

36. Hoiv much time should be given to Sentence-making and 

Compositio?i? 
At least one-third of the time usually set apart for recita- 
tions in Grammar. 

37. In schools -where the number of classes is large, how may 

time be gained for Composition exercises? 
The recitation in technical Grammar may sometimes be 
omitted, and the time devoted to instruction and practice 
in practical Composition. 

38. Should definitions of technical terms be given in parsing 

exercises? 
They should be repeated until they can be given without 
hesitation, when they may be dispensed with. 

39. What reason can be given for repetition of rules and defi- 

nitions in parsing exercises? 
Rules and definitions are usually statements of important 



TEACHING GRAMMAR. 87 

facts; repetition helps to fix them in the memory. Too 
frequent repetition, however, becomes wearisome. 

40. What is meant by Grammatical Analysis? 

The decomposition of a sentence into its logical parts. 

41. What is a pupil taught in the study of Grammatical 

Analysis ? 
The nature of the sentence, its essential parts, and the rela- 
tions of the parts to each other. 

42. What are the principal Technical Terms used in Analysis? 
Subject, Predicate, Object, Attribute, Adjunct, Adjective 

Element, and Adverbial Element. 

43. Define Adjunct. 

It is generally employed to designate an element subordi- 
nate either to the subject or predicate. 

44. What three ki?ids of Adjuncts are there? 
Modifying, Descriptive, and Appositional. 

45. What are the benefits of the study of Grammatical Analysis? 
It leads to clear thinking, accurate and critical use of 

language, and terse and vigorous expression. 

46. What may be said to be the most important thing to be 

learned from the study of English Grammar? 
The theory of the sentence, its different forms, and how 
to detect a faulty sentence. 

47. Which gives most assistance in Punctuation, Parsing or 

Analysis? 
Analysis. 

48. What are the advantages of written parsing? 

First, it enables all the class to be reciting at the same time. 
Second, it impresses the relations of words by seeing 
them written. Third, it leads to an exactness of state- 
ment that the oral method does not always attain. 

49. How should Adverbial Phrases be parsed? 

Pupils should be taught to parse them first as single adverbs, 
and afterwards to parse each word in the phrase. 

50. Name the chief objects and advantages to be derived from 

grammatical study. 
( [) A knowledge of the mechanism of language. (2) Readi- 
ness in the interpretation of literary composition. (3) Ac- 
curacy in the use of language. (4) It is the best intro- 
duction to Rhetoric. . 



TEA CH1XG GE OGRA PHY 



51. When should Technical Grammar be studied in the Com- 

mon Schools! 1 
" The successful pursuit of this study demands a good 
degree of maturity of mind, and a previous training in the 
processes of reflection and analysis. Hence this should 
be one of the last studies to be taken up in the Coxmtry 
School."— ,£. C. Hexvett. 

52. When should Technical Grammar be studied in the Graded 

Schools ? 
"It should be deferred until the pupil is nearly ready for the 
High Schools, — if, indeed, it should be undertaken at all 
before the pupil enters the High School." — lb. 

53. State some important directions for Grammar Recitation. 
" Have all definitions illustrated by original examples. 

Keep the blackboard in use. Dwell on new points until 
well understood. Practice writing sentences, abstracts, 
correspondence, etc. Dwell on common errors." — Prof, 
J. A. Cooper. 



Teaching Geography. 



What tivo -widely different methods of beginning the study of 

Geography ? 
One begins with the earth as a sphere, the other with the 

school-house lot or home of the child. 
Which is the better method? 

Each is advocated by good teachers, and either may be suc- 
cessfully used. 

At what age should pupils begin the study of Geography? 

Map Geography generally cannot be profitably studied 
before the age of ten years. 

What hind of Geographical lessons may be given at an 
earlier age? 

Lessons of a simple character, pictorial and descriptive, and 
approximating object lessons. 



TEACHING GEOGRAPHT. 89 

5. Why should the use of the globe be early introduced? 

Because its frequent use will prevent serious misconceptions 
resulting from the use of maps. 

6. What are some of the misconceptions arising from maps? 
Principally those concerning directions. 

7. Why do erroneous ideas concerning the earth, arise from the 

use of maps? 
Because, the earth being a sphere, no large portion of its sur- 
face can be accurately represented on a plain surface. 

8. Illustrate this by the general direction of the eastern coast 

of the United States. 
Pupils studying the map of North America generally get the 
idea that a line following this general direction would pass 
a little east of Iceland, when, in fact, it would strike the 
British Isles. 

9. How are directions through a large portion of the earth's 

surface best illustrated? 
By tightly stretching a thread on a terrestrial globe. 

10. Pupils sometimes think of Greenland as being south-east 

of the North Pole; how would you prevent this error? 
By frequently using the globe, and illustrating the fact that 
all countries are due south from the North Pole. 

11. What general ideas of the earth should be firmly fixed in 

the mind of the pupil? 
The pupil should form a mental picture of the earth as a 
whole, its sphericity, its dimensions, divisions into land 
and water, the relative positions of the continents, larger 
islands, oceans, seas, etc. 

12. Should the exact Latitude and Longitude of localities be 

committed to memory? 
No. 

13. What exception may be made to this? 

The pupil may learn the exact latitude and longitude of 
his own town or home. 

14. Should all parts of a large work on Geography used in 

school be thoroughly studied? 
No; a selection of the rnost important and useful parts 
should be made. 



9 o TEACHING GEOGRAPHT. 

15. How may we be guided in determining what localities 

should be most thoroughly studied? 
The contents of a modern daily newspaper will furnish a 
good guide. 

16. How can a newspaper guide us in this matter? 

It contains telegrams, letters, and news from those localities 
whose Geography it is most important for us to know. 

[7. How has the daily newspaper been used in teaching Geog- 
raphy ? 
The text-book is made only a book of reference, the daily 
newspaper being the means by which the subject is 
taught. 

iS. What advantages are claimed for this method? 
Places and events are associated in the mind. 

19. What objections ca?i be urged against this method? 

The study can hardly be pursued in as systematic a manner 
as by text-books. 

20. Hoiv is Geography now largely taught in the best schools 

of England? 
Without any text-book except an atlas, 

21. What does this method of teaching necessitate in the teacher? 
A thorough acquaintance with Geography, and a better 

training in teaching than is generally to be found in this 
country. 

22. How is the imagination to be cultivated in Geography? 
By assisting the pupil to form vivid mental pictures of lands 

and waters he has never seen. 

23. What adr> ant ages result from Map-drawing? 

It combines doing with learning; it imprints localities firmly 
in the mind; it educates the hand and the eye. 

24. Can Map -drawing be carried too far? 

Yes, when pupils are led to spend so much time in making 
beautiful maps that they neglect other important studies. 

25. How may a teachers reading aid him in teaching Geography? 
If he sees an interesting and instructive article on any 

country or region, he should preserve it, and read it to the 
class, who should afterwards be questioned concerning it. 



TEACHING GBOGRAPHT. 



26. Where may a teacher most likely find useful information 

for his Geography class additional to thai in the text-book? 

In Gazetteers, Encyclopedias, and books of travel. 

27. Hoiv may the investigating- spirit be cultivated in this study ? 

By assigning a topic such as the Pyramids, Thebes, Suez 
Canal, or London, on which the pupils are to obtain all 
the information they can, and repeat to the class. 

28. Who are the most successful teachers of Geography? 
Generally speaking, those who mix with their teaching of 

maps and text-books most collateral information in the 
form of historical, commercial, or scientific incidents. 

29. What teachers are able to give this kind of collateral infor- 

mation? 

Teachers of much general information, close observation, 
and wide reading, and those who have access to good 
books of reference, and make good use of them. 

30. Who have advocated banishing Geographical teaching from 

the school? 
Dr. Arnold and J. S. Mill. 

31. Give some reasons -which have been given against Geogra- 

phy as a separate study. 
That it should be studied only in connection with History 
and Reading, and that it takes time which might be more 
profitably employed. 

32. Give some reasons why Geography should not be banished 

from schools. 
It is the only study in our schools which gives pupils any 
systematic instruction concerning the earth, and its differ- 
ent climates, peoples, productions, etc. 

33. What Geographical truths are most important to foster 

in the mind? 

The more general and comprehensive truths concerning 
our planet. 

34. What can be said of the necessity of the teacher studying 

Physical Geography? 
It is a branch of the highest importance, and the teacher 
should frequently re-read, or at least re-examine, some 
good work or works on the subject. 



9 2 



TEA C II TNG GE O GRA PHT. 



35. Should Physical Geography be taught as a separate branch 

in the Common Schools? 
No. 

36. Why not? 

Because it increases the expense of education in the pur- 
chase of school books, and because it increases the number 
of classes in school. 

37. How should Physical Geography be taught!' 

In connection with common text-books on Geography. 

38. How can pupils be taught to find, on an ordinary map, the 

high and the low lands? 
By tracing the directions in which the streams of water flow. 

39. What must always be the prominent object in the study of 

Geography? 
"The thorough study of the map, on the wall and in the 
book, and the mastering of it, so as to engrave, so to 
speak, its image in the mind of the pupil, in strong and 
deep-cut outlines, never to be effaced, is, and must remain, 
the prominent object of the course." — A. Guyot. 

40. What kind of a map is most easily fixed in memory? 

A map with few lines and names. A map crowded with 
lines and names of rivers, roads, boundaries, cities, and 
towns may serve for reference, but it confuses the memory 
of the child. 

41. What fact concerning the pronunciation of Geographical 

names should be kept in viezv? 
The pronunciation of Geographical names learned at school 
is likely to adhere to pupils, it being difficult for them to 
adopt new methods of pronunciation; hence the import- 
ance of the teacher using the correct pronunciation. 

42. What good result may there be from going over Geograph- 

ical names at school, even if the locality and description 
of places be forgotten? 
A ready and correct pronunciation may always be at com- 
mand in after life. 

43. What is meant by topical review in Geography? 

A review of Geographical knowledge by topics; for instance, 
take salt lakes as a topic, and have all the salt lakes of 
the world named; ask for all the countries where the 
camel is found, etc. 



TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 93 

44. What country is of most importance to study in detail? 
Our own; the State in which we live being most important 

of the States. 

45. The details of what foreign region are next in import- 

ance to our own? 
Europe. 

46. What oral instruction should be given preparatory to Pri- 

mary Geography? 
Conversational lessons on place, direction, points of the 
compass, distance of familiar towns, etc. 

47. Horv would you teach pupils to find the North Star? 
First show them how to find the Great Dipper and the 

Pointers, and the North Star by the Pointers. 

48. How can the teacher employ currc?it events in teaching 

Geography ? 
When any important event occurs, as a great battle, earth- 
quake, or change in government, the teacher should tell or 
read an interesting account of the occurrence, and the 
pupils should carefully study its locality. 

49. What should precede all instruction in Latitude and Lon- 

gitude? 
The pupil should have a clear idea of what a degree is, and 
should be taught to mark off on the circumference of a cir- 
cle drawn on the blackboard any given number of degrees. 

50. What can be said of teaching Mathematical Geography? 
Many topics in Mathematical or Astronomical Geography 

are too difficult for young minds. It is well for the teacher 
always to see that the learner clearly comprehends the 
facts of the phenomena to be explained, before giving the 
explanation. 

51. Give some useful directions concerning recitations in Geog- 

raphy. 
" Have a map before the class. Have the pupils draw maps 
on the board. Use the globe, objects, and pictures for 
illustrations. Drill upon the pronunciation and spelling 
of the difficult names." — Prof. J. A. Cooper. 



9 4 TEACHING PENMANSHIP. 



Teaching Penmanship. 



What does the -word Penmanship noxv include? 
All kinds of handwriting, whether done with a pen or other 
instrument. 

What two things are requisite in order to be a good penman? 
(i) A thorough knowledge of the best forms of letters, (2) a 
ready command of the pen to execute them. 

When should pupils begin to learn to write? 
They should begin to learn to write when they begin to learn 
to read. Reading and Writing should be taught together. 

What " Movements " may be employed in Writing? 

"There are four 'movements'; (1) the Finger Movement, (2) 
the Fore-arm Movement, (3) the Combined Movement, 
consisting of the combined action of the fore-arm, the hand 
and the fingers, (4) the Whole-arm Movement." — Spencer. 

Should pupils begin to "pri?it" on their slates or use script? 

They should use script from the first. 

What is one of the first things a pupil should learn to write? 

His own name. 

Give the reason. 

Because it is the most important thing for him to learn in 

writing, and because of" the natural interest the pupil 

takes in learning it. 

How may beginners in writing be taught? 
The teacher may write words on the blackboard for them 
to copy. 

How may slates be prepared for writing? 

By ruling permanent lines on one side, — two lines indicating 
the height of the smaller letters and one above and one 
below to indicate the length of loop letters. 



TEACHING PENMANSHIP. 



95 



10. Should left-handed pupils be taught to write -with the left 

or right hand? 
With the right hand, and then they can write with either 
hand. 

11. What views did Charles Reade, the novelist, advocate con- 

cerning ambidexterity? 
That all children should be taught to use both hands with 
equal skillfulness, in writing, drawing, sewing, and all 
kinds of handiwork. 

12. What was his argument against teaching children to be 

only right-handed? 

That it causes a one-sided development, both of the body 
and of the brain. 

13. What are usually the first things the pupil is taught to 

make with the pen? 
Straight lines, to be made with the proper slope, and with 
perfect parallelism. 

14. What is meant by '•''Principles " in Writing? 
The constituent parts of letters. 

15. How many of these principles are there? 
Eight. 

[6. What is the Base Line? 

The horizontal ruled line on which the writing rests. 

17. What is the Head Line? 

The horizontal line to which the small letters extend. 

18. What is the Intermediate Line? 

The horizontal line to which the semi-extended letters extend. 

19. What should be the angle of the main slant straight lines? 
About 52 degrees with the Base Line. 

20. What should be the angle of the curves zvhich connect 

straight lines in small letters? 
About 30 degrees. 

21. What letter may be taken as the unit of height? 
The letter i, without the dot. 

22. What is the unit of width? 
The letter «, taken horizontally. 

23. Into what three classes may the small letters be divided? 
Short, semi-extended, and loop. 



9 6 TEACHING PENMANSHIP. 

24. Name the short letters. 

i, u, w, n, m, v, o, a, x, e, c, r, s. 

25. Name the semi-extended letters. 
t, d, p, q. 

26. Name the loop letters. 
h, k, I, b, j, v. g, z, f, s. 

27. What is the effect of movement in Writing? 

•'A free, easy movement produces a graceful line, while a stiff, 
cramped one produces a rough, irregular line." — DeGraff. 

28. What is the proper position of the body zvhile writing-? 

" The body must be in a position nearly erect, near to, but 
never leaning upon or touching the desk.' 1 — Spencerian 
Key. 

29. What "movements" do you recomynend in Writing? 

"In regular writing we recommend only two movements, 
namely, the combined movement, and the whole-arm 
movement." — lb. 

30. What should be done the first year at school in Writing? 
The pupil should begin to write script on the slate, and learn 

to write his name with a pencil. 

3 1 . Th e scco nd year? 

Learn to make all the small and capital letters on the slate. 

32. The th ird yea r ? 

The first copv-book taken up and completed. Dictation 
exercises commenced for correct use of capitals, punct- 
uation, etc. 

33. When should pupils cease to "if rite from copies? 

As soon as they have acquired a thorough knowledge of the 
forms of letters, and a fair amount of skill in writing. 

34. What is to be said of the practice of teaching Writing 

only from copies? 
It is a waste of time with pupils who have written much. 
Every pupil should be taught at school to write freely 
and legibly without copies. 

35. What is the secret of learning to write well? 

Much practice, constant vigilance, and continual correction 
of faults. 

36. At zvhat three things should xve aim in teaching Pe?ima?i- 

ship? 
(1) Legibility, (2) Rapidity, (3) Elegance. 



TEACHING COMPOSITION. 97 

37. Name several points to be considered in estimating the 

excellence of the pupils'' -work in Writing. 
The form of the letters, use of capitals, division of words, 
spacing, punctuation, neatness, cleanliness, and general 
appearance. 

38. What is claimed to be the effect of learning to draw, on 

Penmanship? 
That if one-half the time usually given to Writing be de- 
voted to Drawing, pupils would be better writers, with 
the power of drawing a clear gain. 

39. How does Drawing assist in Writing? 
It trains both the hand and the eye. 

40. Give a good method of teaching Penmanship. 

A good blackboard should hang where it can be seen by the 
whole school, and on this the teacher should correct the 
faults common among children in shaping their letters, 
and elucidate the principles. Charts will prove a valu- 
able aid in teaching the principles and forms of letters 
and figures. The same series of copy-books should be 
used by all the pupils; but it will be economy for each 
one to have some paper on which to experiment. 



Teaching Composition. 



Why has Composition-writing been regarded as most irk- 
some? 

Because pupils have been required to write formal composi- 
tions, often on abstract topics, without any preliminary 
preparation or training. 

Name some exercises preparatory to Composition. 

Sentence-making in various forms; writing from dictation; 
brief descriptions of familiar objects. 

Hozv may Sentence-making be commenced? 

The pupils may write words and phrases descriptive of some 
object, and then combine them into one sentence. 

7 



98 TEACHING COMPOSITION, 

4. Illustrate by a sentence on the School- House. 

The teacher asks the questions: "Of what is this house 
made" ? " How many stories high" ? " What kind of a roof 
has it"? etc. The pupils write the answers separately, 
then combine them into a sentence, thus: " This house is 
made of brick, is one story high, has a shingle roof", etc. 

5. What topics are best for beginners in Composition? 
Those with which they are most familiar. 

6. Should the teacher select the topics? 

Generally he should; it is less interesting when pupils select 
them. 

7. Hoiv often should Compositions be written? 

There may be sentence-making frequently, and formal com- 
positions once a week, or every two weeks. 

8. How should Compositions be corrected? 

They should never be severely criticized, and all the errors 
at first need not be pointed out. 

9. What advice should beginners receive? 

Attempt to express but one idea at a time; make short, sam- 
ple, and clear sentences; do not aim at fine writing, but to 
express thoughts clearly; try to write just what you mean. 

10. What is the effect of Composition-writing on mental devel- 

opment? 
"As the child takes up successive studies, nothing will assist 
his mental growth so materially as the practice of putting 
into written words the facts learned and the thoughts 
evolved. In fine, there is no more important study in the 
Common School curriculum than that of original compo- 
sition." — Eclectic Manual. 

11. What two hinds of Composition have been much neglected 

in schools? 
Letter-writing and business forms. 

12. In xvhat points concerning the mechanical structure of a 

letter should instruction be given? 
The position of its different parts, the date, address, body, 
division into paragraphs, margins, subscription, folding, 
superscription, etc. 

13. Name some business forms which should be taught. 
Pupils should be taught to write promissory notes, receipts, 

checks, orders, drafts, bills, cash accounts, due-bills, bills 
of exchange, etc. 



TEACHING COMPOSITION. 



99 



1 4. What different kinds of Promissory Notes should be taught f 
Negotiable, non-negotiable, bearing interest from date, bear- 
ing interest from maturity, due-bills, notes payable at a 
bank, etc. 

15. What is the difference in the form of a Negotiable and a 

Non- Negotiable Note? 
The negotiable note contains the words " or order " or their 
equivalent; the non-negotiable note does not. 

16. Are the -words "value received" necessary to the validity 

of a Promissory Note? 
They are not. 

17. What different kinds of Bills should pupils be taught to 

write? 
Bills for articles bought at one time, for articles bought at 
different times, for services, for services and material, etc. 

18. In teaching the business forms, how would you avoid over- 

burdening and confusing the mi fid of the pupil? 
By teaching but one form at a time. 

19. What kinds of business correspondence may be taught in 

schools f 
Answers to advertisements for situations, letters of recom- 
mendation, letters acknowledging remittances, orders 
for goods, letters of introduction, etc. 

20. How would you teach pupils to ■write a business form? 
The pupils may first be shown a model form of the letter or 

instrument, and be permitted to copy it; afterwards they 
should write a similar one from dictation, and last should 
write one from memoranda, or one entirely original. 

21. What kind of Compos it ion-zvriting did young Benjamin 

Franklin practice, with special benefits therefrom? 
Changing poetry into prose. This he thought an excellent 
substitute for the translation of a foreign language. 



ioo TEACHING THE HIGHER BRANCHES. 



Teaching the Higher Branches. 



HISTORY 



What various opinions arc there concerning the study of 
History in school? 

Many hold that it should be studied in our Common Schools, 
others that it is a subject proper only for the higher 
schools, and still others that the facts of History can only 
be acquired by private reading. 

Give an argument against the studyof History in schools. 

History cannot be well studied in schools except from com- 
pendiums, and compendiums are less attractive than detailed 
Histories, and can be more profitably read after the larger 
Histories. ' 

What opitiion did the Teacher- President express on this 
subject? 

" I insist that it should be made an indispensable condition of 
graduation in every American College, that the student 
must understand the history of this continent since its dis- 
covery by Europeans, the origin and history of the United 
States, its constitution of Government, the struggles through 
which it has passed, and the rights and duties of citizens 
who are to determine its destiny and share its glory." — J. 
A. Gar fi eld. 

What zvas Dr. Arnold's plan of a first book in History? 

A picture-book of memorable deeds which best appeal to the 
child's imagination, arranged with order of time, but with 
no other connection; the letter press simply but fully tell- 
ing the story of the action depicted. This would form the 
starting point, and the child would be curious to know more 
about the great men whose acquaintance he had made. 

What arc the tzvo leading objects to be kept in view in the 
study of U. S. History? 

( i ) To imprint on the young mind the leading facts of the 
History of our country, (2) to arouse a love for the study 
which the pupil will carry with him in after life. 



TEACHING THE HIGHER BRANCHES. 101 

6. What bad method of teaching Chronology is to be avoided} 

That of teaching long lists of dates in chronological order, 
as if one event was as important as another. Dates of lead- 
ing events only should be thoroughly imprinted on the 
mind, and other dates should be grouped about these as 
focal points. 

7. What is to be said of the memoriter plan in History? 

" History cannot be successfully taught by the memoriter 
plan. It kills the life of the subject. It disgusts the 
pupils, and gives them a dislike for Historical reading." 
—J. B. Pcaslee. 

8. Give a method of interesting children in History. 

" What is said in the text-book upon the topic under consid- 
eration should be read by the pupils under the direction of 
the teacher. The teacher should sec that they thoroughly 
understand what they read, and at each lesson, question 
them in brief review of the previous lesson. She should 
read, or cause to be read, parts of other histories or refer- 
ence books (encyclopedias, gazetteers, etc.) that bear upon 
the subject of the lesson. She should also give out ques- 
tions, the answers to which the pupils are to find for them- 
selves, and should encourage them in relating historical 
anecdotes, and in giving sketches of noted events to their 
classmates." — lb. 

9. What can you say of Biography in connection -with History? 
" History should be taught principally by biography. Biog- 
raphy is the soul of history. The life of a great person- 
age, as of Cromwell, Napoleon, or Washington, contains 
nearly everything of importance in the history of the time 
and country in which he lived. Nothing is more enter- 
taining to the young than the lives of great men and 
women." — lb. 

to. Hoxv should recitations in History be conducted? 

All verbatim repetition of sentences and paragraphs should 
be forbidden, and the pupils should be required to state 
the facts in their own language. 

1 1. How may History be taught in primary grades? 

The leading events in U.S. History may be taught to the 
pupils in a series of oral lessons, and some leading dates, 
fixed in their minds. 



102 TEACHING THE HIGHER BRANCHES. 



12. What study is a natural ally of History? 

Geography; events and places should be associated in the 
mind. The history of a campaign should always be 
studied with the map. 

1 3. Hoiv can collateral information be used in teaching His tor y ? 
The teacher may direct pupils to available sources of infor- 
mation outside the text-book, and a pertinent and enter- 
taining anecdote may do much to impress indelibly in 
the mind an historical fact. 

14. In -what way may general literature be made to subserve 

the study of History? 
Celebrated poems, such as "The Landing of the Pilgrims", 
"Paul Revere's Ride", "Sheridan's Ride", etc., and 
extracts from great speeches, and other portions of litera- 
ture connected with historical events, should be read in 
connection with the study of History. 

15. Hoiv can dates be fixed in the mind? 

Prominent dates should be placed on the blackboard, and 
should be repeatedly considered. Repetition only can 
fasten dates in the memory. 

16. What is to be said of memorizing isolated dates? 

It is worse than useless; dates should only be learned in 
connection with the general narrative. 

17. What dates should be carefully fixed in the mind? 

Dates of certain great events marking the epochs in the 
History of a Country. 

18. What is to be said of mnemonic devices in History? 
Their frequent use tends to create confusion in the mind, 

and to displace the more rational exercise of the memory; 
they may, however, sometimes be employed with good 
results, especially to assist the memory in dates. 

19. Give an example of a mnemonic device in U. S. History. 
In the following arrangement of Revolutionary events, the 

first letters spell Liberty: 

Lexington (battle of), 1775. 
Independence (Declaration of), 1776. 
Burgoyne (Surrender of), 1777. 
Evacuation (of Philadelphia). 1778. 
Recapture (of Stony Point), 1779. 
Treason (of Arnold), 17S0. 
Yorktown (Siege of), 1781. 



TEACHING THE HIGHER BRANCHES. 



[03 



20. What knowledge of the history of the Political Parties 

should the pupil obtain? 

A knowledge of the origin of the parties, the names of the 
successive parties, the proximate date of the origin of each, 
and the party victorious at every Presidential election. 

21. What knozvledge of the order of the succession of Presi- 

dents should be acquired? 
It will prove a great convenience to be able to name the 
Presidents in their order, those who served eight years 
and those who died in office, and also to give the year of 
the commencement of each Administration. 

22. How much knowledge of the U. S. Constitution should be 

given in the Common Schools? 
It cannot be expected that pupils in the District Schools 
will become Constitutional lawyers, but it is highly desir- 
able that they should have the general outlines of the 
organic law clearly impressed on their minds. 

23. In some schools pupils have been required to memorize the 

Constitution ; is this wise? 
It is of doubtful propriety in any school; it would be better 
to acquire such familiarity with the document as to give 
facility in consulting it upon any point on which infor- 
mation is desired. 

24. How would you encourage the habit of consulting the 

Constitution? 
By asking questions which are answered in the Constitution, 
and requiring the pupil to discover the answers by their 
own investigations. 

25. Give examples of questions which may serve this purpose. 
How old must the President be ? How old must a Senator 

be ? In what cases is a two-thirds vote required in the 
Senate? What U. S. officers are elected directly by the 
people ? etc. 

26. Should a separate text-book on the Constitution be used? 

It is better in the Common Schools that the Constitution be 
studied in connection with U. S. History. 

27. Name some topics in the U. S. Constitution which are beyond 

the comprehension of Common School pupils. 
The jurisdiction of the U. S. Courts as defined in the 3rd 
article, and the exact boundary between the powers of 
the State and Federal Governments. 



<H 



TEACHING THE HIGHER BRANCHES. 



28. IIoxv should the history of the Constitution be studied? 
The Articles of Confederation and the Constitution should 

be contrasted, and the defects of the former understood ; 
the pupils should learn the points on which the Federal 
Convention had most difficulty, and what were the great 
compromises of the Constitution. The organization of 
the Government under Washington should be carefully 
studied. 

29. Name some points in the science of government "which 

should be studied in connection with the Constitution. 
The three-fold form of the Government, the reasons for the 
separation of the three departments, some similarities and 
differences between the U. S. Constitution and that of 
the pupils' own State, the nature of Civil Liberty, and 
how the affairs of a county, township, and town are 
managed, etc. 

30. What three systems of Local Government in the United 

States? 
(1) The Township System, prevailing generally in New 
England. (2) The County System, found in most of the 
Southern States. (3) The Compromise System, or com- 
bined Township and County Systems, found in most of 
the Western States. 

PHYSIOLOGY. 

31. What do modem sanitary discussions show? 

The necessity of a popular knowledge of the laws of health. 

32. Should teachers be required to understand Physiology? 
Yes; every teacher should be acquainted with its general 

truths, whether he is reqxiired to teach it or not, both for 
his own profit and for the means it affords him of being 
useful to others. 

33. Give an argument in favor of the study of Physiology in 

schools. 
Every one should understand the laws of life and health. 
From the Cradle to the grave we suffer punishment for the 
violation of these laws. Perhaps half the diseases and 
half the deaths that occur arise from their violation. 
2\. Can a profound knowledge of this subject be acquired in 
the Common School? 
No; but an acquaintance with its leading truths can be given. 



TEACHING THE HIGHER BRANCHES. 105 

35. What primary instruction may be given in this subject? 
Simple explanations of how we live, of the use of the heart 

and lungs, locating and naming some of the principal 
bones, arteries, etc., with talks on the means of preserv- 
ing the health. 

36. • What are some of the most important Hygienic topics to 

present to young children? 
Proper Hygienic habits as to eating, drinking, sleeping, 
exercise, bathing, keeping the feet warm and the head cool, 
avoid sitting in a draft of air, tight lacing, cramping the 
lungs, intemperate use of alcohol, etc. 

37. Can Physiology be properly taught from books only? 

No; "there is", says Dr. Dalton, "only one means by 
which Physiology can be studied; that is by the observa- 
tion of nature ". 

38. Hoiv can the study be taught in schools by the observation 

of nature? 
By directing pupils to see the organs of the lower animals 
by visits to slaughter-houses, etc. They will thus obtain 
a better idea of the appearance and uses of their own 
organs than they could from books and pictures. 

39. What three sciences does the term Physiology, as generally 

used, include? 
Anatomy, the science of the structure of the body; Physi- 
ology, the science of the functions of the body; and 
Hygiene, the science of the laws of health. 

40. Why are these generally sticdied together? 

Because they are so intimately blended that the lines of 
distinction between them cannot be clearly drawn, and 
some knowledge of all of them is necessary to understand 
the principles which underlie the preservation of health, 
and the formation of correct habits. 

41. Hoiv can the difference between knoxvledge from nature 

and from books in Physiology be illustrated? 
There is a great difference between reading the description 
of the heart, and seeing the actual heart of an ox, hand- 
ling, studying, and dissecting it. However, the butcher 
may see a thousand hearts without learning that it has 
valves. Study of books and. observation of nature should 
go together. 



106 TEACHING THE HIGHER BRANCHES. 

42. How much of Anatomy should be taught in the Common 

Schools? 

The structure and names of the principal bones, muscles, 
arteries, veins, etc. 

43. Of what use is the microscope in the study of Physiology? 
By means of it only, can we see the structure of the bones, 

the skin, the blood, the pigment cells of the eye, etc. 

44. How should recitations in Physiology be conducted? 

" On naming the subject of a paragraph the pupil should be 
prepared to tell all he knows about it. No failure should 
discourage the teacher in establishing this mode of study 
and recitation." — J. Dorman Steele. 

45. How can accuracy in the use of Physiological terms be 

secured? 

The pupil should have frequent exercises in writing on slate, 
paper, or blackboard the nomenclature of the subject, 
and at the close of a recitation let all criticise the spell- 
ing, use of capitals, pronunciation, and modes of ex- 
pression. 

46. How can the k?wwledge acquired be firmly fixed in the 

mind? 

"The pupil should expect to be questioned each day upon 
any subject passed over during the term, and thus the 
entire knowledge gained will be within his grasp for ready 
use." — Steele. 

BOOK-KEEPING. 

47. What argument has been made against the study of Book- 

keeping in the Public Schools? 
It has been maintained that Book-keeping can only be 
acquired in connection with actual practice in the count- 
ing-room. 

48. Is this argument well founded? 

No; for, while theoretic instruction can not supersede the 
necessity of actual practice, yet the knowledge of Book- 
keeping obtained at school may prove highly useful to 
ever}' man and woman. 

49. How much time is necessary to be devoted to Book-keeping 

in order to tinder stand it? 
One or two years in order to become a professional book- 
keeper, but the higher classes in our Common Schools 



TEACHING THE HIGHER BRANCHES. 107 

may learn in one or two months all that is necessary to be 
able to keep an ordinary set of accounts accurately and 
clearly. 

50. What Books are used in the si?nplest form of Book keeping? 
The Day -Book, recording the transactions in the order of 

their occurrence, and the Ledger, classifying the results. 

51. Should this study be pursued in Country Schools? 

Yes, because there is a vei*y general lack of information on 
this subject among the agricultural classes, and those who 
are to become farmers should learn at school how to keep 
farm- accounts, farm records, and family expense accounts. 

52. When should Book-keeping be studied in the Common School? 
After the completion of Practical Arithmetic. 

HIGHER MATHEMATICS. 

53. Upon what subject is it generally believed that too much 

time is spent in school? 
Arithmetic; there is a general concurrence of opinion among 
educationists upon this point. 

54. When may the study of Algebra be commenced? 

After the completion of the common text-book on Practical 
Arithmetic, and before the study of Higher Arithmetic. 
Indeed, Algebra may be studied profitably without master- 
ing many topics treated in most Practical Arithmetics. 

55. What is the objection to the study of Algebra in the Com- 

mon Schools? 
The class in Algebra will usually be quite small, and it is tak- 
ing up the time of the teacher for the benefit of the few. 

56. In what cases may a teacher properly advise the formation 

of a class in Algebra? 
When there are pupils Avho must study either Higher Arith- 
metic or Algebra, the latter should be chosen. 

57. Can pupils learn enough of Algebra in six months to be of 

any practical benefit to them? 
Yes; half a year on Algebra will often be more profitable 
than in the further study of Arithmetic. 

58. Can Geometry be understood without a knowledge oj A I 

gebra or a thorough acquaintance with Arithmetic? 
Yes; Geometry can be studied and understood without any 



ioS TEACHING THE HIGHER BRANCHES. 

acquaintance with Algebra, and a familiarity with only 
the simpler principles of Arithmetic. 

59. How can this be proved? 

By the fact that the Greeks developed Geometry without 
a knowledge of Algebra, or being what would now be 
called good Arithmeticians. 

60. How may Geometry be commenced? 

The leading truths of Plane Geometry, the facts about 
lines, angles, and surfaces may be made familiar to the 
student before any attempt is made at scientific reasoning. 

61. In -What Arithmetical study are Geometrical facts taught 

without demonstrations? 
Mensuration. 

62. Arc the facts of Geometry taught successfully to young 

children in any modern schools? 
Yes; in many Primary Schools on the continent of Europe 
much importance is attached to the study of geometrical 
forms. This furnishes excellent means for intellectual 
development. It lays the foundation of instruction in 
drawing, and foi-ms an admirable preparation for different 
trades (carpentry, masonry, locksmithing, etc.). 

63. What is the true order of mathematical studies? 

" Geometrical facts and conceptions are easier to a child 
than those of Arithmetic, but arithmetical reasoning is 
easier than geometrical. The true scientific order in a 
mathematical education would therefore be, to begin with 
the facts of Geometry, then take both the facts and 
reasoning of Arithmetic, and afterwards return to Geom- 
etry, not to the facts only, but to its proofs." — Dr. Thomas 
Hill. 

64. Name some facts taught by Spherical Geometry which are 

useful to the student of Mathematical Geography. 

Every section of a sphere made by a plane is a circle. Any 
two great circles will bisect each other. The shortest 
distance between two points on the surface of a sphere is 
the arc of a great circle. 

65. Should the demonstrations in Geometry be committed to 

memory? 
No; memorizing in Geometry should not be permitted. 



TEACHING THE HIGHER BRANCHES. 109 

66. What is meant by Invent 'tonal Geometry! 1 

It is the exercise of the student's powers of invention by 
the investigation and solution of original geometrical 
problems, and the discovery of demonstrations of geomet- 
rical propositions. 

67. What useful apparatus may be used in teaching the facts 

of Spherical Geometry? 

A slated globe; it is difficult for most pupils to comprehend 
spherical angles, triangles, etc., when drawn on a plane 
surface. 

NATURAL SCIENCE. 

68. What three branches of Natural Science are best suited 

for study in the Public Schools ? 

Botany, Physics, and Physiology. 

69 . Wh at cons ide rations recommend the choice of Botany a m ng 

the sciences? 

Plants which supply the material for study are " abundant 
both in quantity and in variety; their characters are as a 
rule both striking and attractive; no apparatus is necessary 
beyond the occasional use of a pocket knife or a band lens; 
while their classification is based chiefly, if not entirely, 
upon such structural characters as may be observed by 
the eye; the problems of Botany are not too complex; the 
comparisons to be made are not too difficult for the 
judgment of the child ".—A. H. Tuttle. 

70. What difficulties are there in the way of the study of 

Zoology in schools? 

"Concerning the study of animals, it may be said that while 
the material is generally abundant, and the variety suffi- 
cient, it is not always pleasant to deal with; when alive it 
is frequently troublesome, and when dead it speedily 
becomes offensive; even alcoholic material is not always 
agreeable; the characters of animals, after we pass beyond 
the most trivial, are frequently internal, and make neces- 
sary careful dissection; while their classification, though 
it takes largely into consideration the anatomical struct- 
ure of adults, daily makes use more and more of embry- 
ological data, that cannot be submitted to the observation 
of the child."— lb. 



no TEACHING THE HIGHER BRANCHES. 

71. What method of study is best in Botany? 

"The method of study should be that first devised by Hens- 
low, and since admirably developed by Miss Youmans; 
the child should be supplied, either by his book or by his 
teacher, with terms as he needs them, and should be set to 
work first upon parts of plants, and then upon plants as a 
whole, observing closely, describing accurately, and, when 
he has had sufficient practice in observation and descrip- 
tion, in comparing and classifying to the best of his 
ability."— lb. 

72. What is the great educational value of the study of Botany? 

Training the observing faculties, developing the generalizing 
powers, and discipline in that power of rightly compre- 
hending the relations of things which underlie all accurate 
classification. 

73. What has been said of the success of Prof. Henslow in 

teaching Botany to young childre?i? 
Children from ten to fourteen years of age learned Botany 
readily and voluntarily, and became greatly interested in 
it. The teacher made the study practical. He made it an 
objective study. The children were taught to know the 
plants, and to pull them to pieces, and to give their proper 
names to those parts, to indicate the relation of those parts 
to one another, and to find out the relation of one plant to 
another by the knowledge thus obtained. 

74. What value as a means of education did Hensloiv place 

upon Botany? 
He regarded it as the most important agent that could be 
employed for cultivating the faculties of observation, and 
for strengthening the reasoning powers. 

75. What is the educational value of the study of Physics? 
"The end and aim of the study of physics, as far as its edu- 
cational value is concerned, is discipline in the power of 
comprehending that relation between phenomena which 
is at the bottom of all that which we call laiv. It is valu- 
able as teaching the art of investigation — of inquiring into 
things; and as training and developing the power of logical 
induction; moreover, because its conclusions, when 
reached, are capable of immediate proof or disproof, it 
tends strongly to inculcate the habit of exact thought 
upon given data." — A. H. Tuttle. 



TEACHING THE HIGHER BRANCHES. m 

76. What kind of experiments should be performed in the study 

of Physics? 
The experiments generally should be the simpler ones, such 
as the pupils can perform themselves in the first instance, 
or easily repeat after being shown by the teacher. 

77. What hind of apparatus should be employed? 

It should be home-made as far as possible; there should be 
no apparatus that the pupils may not handle and use 
themselves. Large, costly, and complicated pieces of 
apparatus should be avoided. A hundred-dollar air-pump 
has no place in the Public School. 

78. When should the study of Science begin, and -where should 

it end? 
" What we most urgently need is an objective course of 
study which shall train the observing powers, as mathe- 
matics trains the power of calculation. From the time 
the child begins to count, until the man has mastered the 
calculus, there is provided an unbroken series of exercises 
of ever-increasing complexity, suited to unfold the mathe- 
matical faculty. We want a parallel course of objective 
exercises, not to be dispatched in a term or a year, but 
running through the whole period of education, which 
shall give the observing and inductive faculties a cor- 
responding and systematic unfolding." — Miss Toumans. 



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